Experience has shown that disaster damage is usually under-reported. Published estimates in the immediate aftermath of disasters - and even at later stages - focus primarily on direct physical damage, rather than on the far greater indirect costs of production and income losses, forced unemployment, and increased costs of basic services induced by disasters. Even direct effects which appear relatively small can, on occasion, have far-reaching and disproportionate consequences. For example, the destruction of a single bridge may lead to the ruin of an entire region's economy for a prolonged period. At the national level, disasters in such countries as Guatemala and the Philippines create average, annual losses of up to 3-4 per cent of the country's gross national product (GNP). With losses of this magnitude, it may take a developing country over 20 years to repay loans contracted after natural disasters: a major constraint on its sustainable development.
Naturally occurring phenomena - whether geophysical, oceanographic, atmospheric or a combination of them - would elicit little public concern if human settlements were not affected. Such natural phenomena constitute a disaster precisely because they adversely affect those human societies located in their path. Population growth, the imperatives of material survival, trade, competition and economic interdependence have rendered it inevitable that growing numbers of people are living in areas at risk. For this reason, the impact of natural disasters has also continued to increase.
In order to mitigate and reduce the harmful effects of natural, technological and environmental disasters, it is necessary to:
During the twentieth century, scientific, technological, policy and management innovations have significantly increased our capacity to understand various hazards, to assess risks and vulnerabilities, and to predict and provide early warning of the location and timing of disastrous events. Many natural phenomena - such as floods, avalanches, landslides and earthquakes - as well as technological installations which can cause disasters are location-specific. Even erratic phenomena such as cyclones called hurricanes in the Americas and typhoons in South-East Asia are known to cause most of their damage by flooding in specific locations. This suggests that evasive actions can be taken for disaster prevention and reduction, through:
Although many disaster reduction measures have been developed and applied in technologically advanced societies, they have not been systematically introduced worldwide, particularly in developing countries. As human and economic losses from natural disasters have risen in recent years, those most affected tend to be the poor and socially vulnerable in developing countries. International attention is focusing on measures appropriate to levels of industrialization, population densities and the disasters faced which can successfully reduce the impact of disasters in developing countries, as well as the factors which affect whether or not these measures are implemented. ( See box on Regional priorities in reducing natural, technological and environmental disasters )
Reducing natural disasters
The United Nations has long worked with affected countries and expert communities to mitigate the effects of natural disasters. In the 1960s and early 1970s, the Centre for Housing, Building and Planning promoted natural disaster prevention in the rehabilitation and reconstruction phases of disasters. In 1972, the Office of the United Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator (UNDRO) was established. Under the terms of its founding resolution, General Assembly Resolution 2816 (1971), one of UNDRO's responsibilities, in addition to the coordination of international disaster relief, was "to promote the study, prevention, control and prediction of natural disasters, including the collection and dissemination of information concerning technological developments". In 1992, the establishment of DHA resulted in combining new responsibilities in complex emergencies with UNDRO's traditional roles in natural disaster reduction.
In addition to UNDRO, and later DHA, other programmes and specialized agencies in the United Nations system have continued to play important roles in natural disaster reduction. The UNDP, Habitat and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) are all actively involved in disaster rehabilitation and reconstruction. Disaster reduction activities of WHO cover epidemics, water-borne diseases, vector control, etc. UNESCO has an active programme in the fields of seismology and volcanology, hydrology and flood control and sciences in general and their application to disaster reduction. The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) does extensive work on meteorological disasters and early warning systems for cyclones and floods. FAO has programmes dealing with hydrology and flood control, the alleviation of droughts, land erosion, pest control, food security, etc.
In 1989, as a spur for the United Nations work on natural disaster reduction, the General Assembly, in resolution 44/236, launched the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) 1990-2000 and called for "concerted international action" to protect people from natural disasters. The Decade's overall objective is to "reduce loss of life, damage of property and the disruption of economic and social stability as a consequence of natural disasters". Through the framework of IDNDR, a cooperative global partnership has emerged among national and local governments, the research and development community, and the private sector, including banks, insurance companies, industrial enterprises, foundations and non-governmental organizations. Convened in 138 national IDNDR committees or focal points, these partners exchange information, address policy makers, and raise awareness about reducing vulnerability to natural disasters. An advisory body of 25 experts from diverse regions and disciplines provides guidelines for national and international partners, and assesses activities carried out by organizations under the IDNDR umbrella.
The 1994 World Conference in Yokohama, Japan was a milestone in the IDNDR process. At this mid-term review, participants developed new strategies for natural disaster reduction:
Since 1994, the strategy in disaster reduction has focused on disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness, in preference to disaster response, which yields only temporary results at a very high cost. Natural disaster reduction is now not only an indispensable component of humanitarian assistance, but also a central United Nations approach to sustainable development, natural resource protection and sound environmental management.
The United Nations' current work on natural disasters is of two types: technical assistance and standard-setting in disaster reduction; and the promotion of better policies and public awareness about disaster reduction. DHA works in any given country through the United Nations Resident Coordinator and the national IDNDR committees to integrate disaster reduction into national development planning.
Technical assistance and setting standards for disaster reduction
Successful disaster reduction management is a cyclical activity, including the five stages shown in figure 58 :
To be effective, these stages must integrate research and development, information exchange, capacity-building and training, and the implementation of appropriate solutions in vulnerable communities. DHA addresses these various stages of disaster reduction management by:
Improving policies and public awareness about disaster reduction
Improved policies. The IDNDR Secretariat works with the United Nations system, national and local governments, the research and development community, NGOs and the private business sector to advocate improved policies for disaster reduction.
Working with other parts of the United Nations, the IDNDR Secretariat has:
Working with national and local governments, the IDNDR Secretariat has:
Working with the research and development community, the IDNDR Secretariat:
Working with the private sector, the IDNDR Secretariat has:
Public awareness. The IDNDR secretariat also promoted public awareness about natural disaster reduction. It has launched:
At the same time, several United Nations agencies have been engaged in reducing the incidence and effects of technological disasters by promoting good practices in their respective areas. Thus, the International Labour Organisation (ILO), WHO, the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), UNESCO, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) all have activities related to the prevention of industrial, maritime or air accidents. In addition, IMO and IAEA have programmes to prevent or mitigate the environmental damage of marine pollution and radioactivity, respectively. Many other kinds of environmental damage caused by technological or industrial accidents, however, remained without a consistent and assured source of assistance in the United Nations system.
Resolution 44/236, which created IDNDR, emphasized in its preamble "that appropriate emergency planning for natural disasters and its integration in national development plans could also be very helpful in preventing . . . other kinds of disasters, such as those of an industrial or technological nature."At the 1994 Yokohama Conference, participants concluded that "the concept of disaster reduction should be enlarged to cover natural and other disaster situations including environmental and technological disasters" and recommended the "adoption of integrated policies for prevention of, preparedness for, and response to, natural disasters and other disaster situations including environmental and technological hazards."2
Increased industrialization especially in developing countries has caused an increasing number of accidents. This, in turn, has increased the environmental consciousness of the international community and triggered a range of international environmental assistance programmes. While the wide variety of possible technological and other man-made disasters precludes adopting a single set of safety precautions, DHA and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) have been mandated to improve the international response to environmental emergencies. Having established a Joint UNEP/DHA Environment Unit in 1994, the two United Nations bodies have begun to address the environmental consequences of such disasters as chemical and oil spills, industrial accidents, forest fires and other sudden-onset emergencies that cause, or threaten, environmental damage and which can have serious impacts on human health and welfare.
The Joint Unit is financed primarily by UNEP and organizationally lodged in DHA, which provides it with both office support and emergency response facilities. The Unit carries out a range of activities, including independent assessments of environmental emergencies upon the request of governments. UNEP and DHA have set up an open-ended International Advisory Group on Environmental Emergencies to bring together national experts and focal points from countries around the world. The Advisory Group meets annually to share experiences in the field of response to environmental disasters, to review the work of the Joint Unit, and to provide advice and guidance on its future activities.
In conclusion . . . prospects for future disaster mitigation and reduction hinge upon the extent to which all levels in society succeed in "mainstreaming" the issue: developing systematic policies and programmes that incorporate protection from disaster risks. In order to be successful, disaster reduction techniques must be known, accepted and practised by governments, private business organizations, other private organizations and vulnerable communities throughout the world.
The IDNDR process and the conclusions of the Yokohama Conference have identified the key partners and mechanisms at the local, national, regional and international levels. IDNDR will continue to encourage an open-ended, participatory process, in order to assess remaining gaps and propose effective disaster reduction initiatives beyond the year 2000. The challenge for the United Nations is to facilitate action by all concerned to ensure that a culture of prevention is maintained and strengthened by the time IDNDR officially ends in the year 2000.
Notes:
1 See Swiss Reinsurance Company, Sigma, Nos. 3/1997 and 2/1996; see also Reuters news item, 25 July 1995, quoting an official report of the Japanese Economic Planning Agency.
2 Yokohama Strategy and Plan of Action for a Safer World, United Nations, 1994, pp. 8-9.