Background
The Gulf War in 1991 and the ensuing widespread civil insurrection caused severe disruption to Iraq's economy and infrastructure, in particular to facilities for power generation and distribution, communications, transport, potable water supplies and sewage disposal. The three northern governorates suffered particularly marked population dislocations in the wake of armed confrontation with Iraqi Government forces.
Following the cease-fire, the Security Council adopted resolution 687 (1991) on 3 April. Since then, the United Nations Security Council has maintained a range of sanctions against Iraq to ensure full compliance with its resolutions relating to the destruction of Iraq's weapons of mass destruction, the recognition of Kuwait's international borders and the return of Kuwaiti prisoners of war and property. These sanctions have significantly constrained Iraq's ability to earn foreign currency. They have also limited its legitimate imports to humanitarian goods authorized by the 661 Committee: the Security Council Committee established by resolution 661 (1990) which had initially imposed sanctions on Iraq after its invasion of Kuwait.
Humanitarian needs
Although Iraq was able to repair parts of its damaged infrastructure after the cease-fire in 1991, this was insufficient to ensure the civilian population's access to guaranteed safe drinking water and electricity supplies. Moreover, the civilian population was adversely affected by growing unemployment, increased inflation, particularly in food prices, and the widespread destruction of livestock. Notwithstanding the operation of a Government-subsidized food ration in central and southern Iraq, the income, purchasing power and nutritional status of the civilian population came under sustained pressure. Iraq's public health infrastructure, which had been relatively well developed by regional standards, suffered marked deterioration involving both shortages of medical equipment and supplies and the loss of qualified personnel to more lucrative employment abroad.
Although these problems had become increasingly serious after 1991, a marked deterioration in the nutritional and health status of the population was evident after 1994. A variety of Iraqi, NGO and United Nations reports pointed to increased evidence of malnutrition and associated problems among those most at risk, notably children under the age of five, and an increase in the incidence of low birth-weights. The Government food ration was successively reduced so that by the end of 1996 it provided about 1,275 calories daily: approximately two thirds of WHO and other widely accepted minimum standards of daily caloric intake. Many United Nations agencies and NGOs observed that the public health care system was also becoming less able to provide sustained or effective treatment, with very serious reductions in the range of treatments available, surgery and emergency services.
Humanitarian response
The United Nations Humanitarian Programme since 1991
In response to the evident needs stemming from the Gulf War and associated disturbances, the United Nations established an Inter-Agency Humanitarian Programme in 1991 to address the requirements of the whole country. This Programme has been coordinated since 1992 by DHA, through the United Nations Office of the Humanitarian Coordinator in Iraq (UNOCHI).
Within the overall programme, specific activities are carried out by FAO, UNDP, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNICEF, WFP and WHO. Successive United Nations CAPs have been launched since 1991 to cover the immediate needs of vulnerable groups for food, agricultural assistance and nutrition, water supply and sanitation services, basic health services, shelter and education. Since May 1991, these appeals have raised a total of US$ 964 million, with a rate of response ranging from 26 per cent to 86 per cent of the stated requirements. ( See figures 35 and 36 ) In 1996-1997, 88 per cent of the funds for the humanitarian programme in Iraq has been provided by five major donors: the Netherlands, the United States of America, Sweden, Germany and Japan ( See figure 37 ).
The Humanitarian Programme has encompassed a wider range of projects in the three northern governorates of Dohuk, Erbil and Suleimaniyah than in the rest of Iraq. In the north, the Programme has focused both on the provision of relief assistance to internally displaced persons and refugees and on a range of resettlement initiatives, including a wide variety of infrastructure, health, agricultural and education programmes.
It has also provided winter heating fuel as a result of the internal embargo imposed on the region by the Government of Iraq.
In order to ensure the safety of United Nations personnel and assist international NGOs operating in the north, in 1991, the United Nations established the United Nations Guards Contingent in Iraq (UNGCI) to escort convoys and relief workers as well as to provide security assessments. Since its inception, UNGCI has relied on voluntary contributions to fulfil its responsibilities. Currently UNGCI deploys up to 150 personnel, provided by the Governments of Bangladesh, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Greece, Nepal, the Netherlands, the Philippines and Poland.
The implementation of Security Council resolution 986 (1995)
Since 1991, the Security Council has attempted to alleviate the impact of United Nations sanctions on Iraq's civilian population and to meet essential humanitarian needs by a variety of measures which would have allowed Iraq to sell a limited quantity of oil, under United Nations supervision, in order to fund the import of humanitarian goods. The most extensive of these measures was Security Council resolution 986 (1995), which authorized the sale of US$ 2 billion over a period of 180 days to meet the essential humanitarian needs of Iraq's civilian population, as well as other defined purposes such as compensating the victims of Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990.
In May 1996, the Government of Iraq concluded a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with the United Nations on the implementation of the resolution. On the basis of the stipulations of SCR 986 (1995), of the US$ 2 billion worth of oil to be sold:
As required under the MOU, the Government of Iraq drew up a Distribution Plan for the equitable distribution of goods authorized under the resolution. It included the needs of the three northern governorates that were identified by the authorities in the north, in consultation with the United Nations Humanitarian Programme. This Plan was approved by the United Nations Secretary-General in July 1996. Implementation was delayed as negotiations on outstanding issues took place and the security situation in the north deteriorated, after intervention by Iraqi Government forces in inter-Kurdish fighting. Finally, on 9 December, the Secretary-General informed the Security Council that all actions necessary to ensure effective implementation of SCR 986 (1995) had been undertaken and the Secretariat was ready to proceed. The 180-day period commenced on 10 December 1996.
Implementation of Humanitarian Programme in Central and Southern Iraq
Under the terms of the resolution and MOU, the Government of Iraq is responsible for distributing SCR 986 supplies in the fifteen governorates of central and southern Iraq according to procedures outlined in the Distribution Plan. The overall responsibility for the observation process rests with DHA.
In order to observe the efficiency, equitability and adequacy of the distribution, 151 United Nations international observers are based in Baghdad and travel periodically throughout the country. They operate in three separate but complementary tiers:
Final analyses of the reporting from the observers based in Iraq will be undertaken by DHA in New York, for consideration by the Secretary-General and the Security Council.
Even though the implementation period under the resolution commenced on 10 December 1996, necessary commercial arrangements delayed the arrival of humanitarian supplies pursuant to SCR 986 (1995). The first proceeds from oil sales did not arrive into the SCR 986 Iraq account until 15 January 1997, and the first letters of credit for the purchase of humanitarian goods were not issued until 14 February. As a result, the distribution of supplies envisaged in the Distribution Plan could not commence before March.
While awaiting the first deliveries, a range of preparatory activities was undertaken by United Nations agencies so as to observe the distribution of SCR 986 supplies. For example, WHO has trained personnel in government medical warehouses in the operation of a computerized receipt-and-dispatch system. FAO has inspected all warehouses to be used for the storage of plant protection inputs, agricultural equipment and veterinary supplies. UNICEF is adapting an existing computerized tracking system to follow the distribution and utilization of supplies for all designated water and sewage-treatment plants.
The first shipment of SCR 986 goods reached Iraq on 20 March. The Government of Iraq decided to wait until it had a month's supply of any commodity before commencing distribution, partly in order to simplify the tracking of the commodities. In central and southern Iraq, therefore, the first distribution of wheat flour occurred in the April 1997 ration, while in the three northern governorates, the first flour distribution commenced on 14 April, under WFP supervision.
By late April, deliveries of foodstuffs and soap/detergents to Iraq totalled over 300,000 tonnes. Of the three permitted entry points, 88 per cent of deliveries had been delivered to Umm Qasr, 7 per cent through Jordan and 5 per cent through Turkey. (See map V opposite.) As of late April, DHA observers had undertaken some 457 observation missions at mills, storage facilities and ration agents throughout the country. As the sectoral agency responsible for observing food distribution, WFP had also undertaken extensive observation of these facilities using local and international staff.
Implementation of Humanitarian Programme in the three northern governorates
Under the terms of SCR 986 (1995) and the MOU, the Inter-Agency Humanitarian Programme is responsible for the distribution of supplies in the three northern governorates of Dohuk, Erbil and Suleimaniyah. In conjunction with local authorities, WFP has completed a population survey and identified some 8,500 ration agents. The Government of Iraq has assigned warehouses in Kirkuk and Mosul to WFP for the storage of foodstuffs for the three northern governorates. As envisaged in the MOU, it has been determined that the procurement of food and medical supplies for these governorates may be undertaken in the most efficient and cost-effective way through bulk purchases by the Government of Iraq. Since 14 April, WFP has distributed wheat flour purchased under this arrangement to all three northern governorates.
In addition to these food and medical supplies, a wide range of other programmes in the north will be funded under SCR 986 (1995). For example, Habitat is to undertake a shelter and resettlement programme. UNDP/Department for Development Support and Management Services has prioritized the needs of the electricity sector and is overseeing repair projects. DHA is coordinating a mines clearance and awareness programme. UNICEF has undertaken a risk-mapping exercise to identify priority areas for water and sanitation. Although observation is not mandatory in the northern governorates, United Nations personnel will monitor and report on the progress of those programmes in the northern governorates which are funded under SCR 986 (1995).
The future implementation of SCR 986 (1995).
The 180-day implementation period for oil sales under SCR 986 (1995) is due to end on 9 June 1997. At the end of the period, the Secretary-General is due to report to the Security Council on the implementation of the resolution, with particular reference to the efficiency, equitability and adequacy of humanitarian supplies distributed under the resolution. The Security Council and the Government of Iraq are expected to come to an agreement on the possible extension of the arrangements envisaged in SCR 986 (1995).