The impact of environmental disasters can be devastating on the
social, economic, and environmental systems of a country or region
as well as the global ecosystem. Environmental disasters do not
recognise man-made borders, and threaten the legacy left to future
generations of a clean and supportive environment. Because of
the interdependency of earth ecosystems international co-operation
is paramount to prevent, and when disaster strikes, respond to
relieve quickly and effectively the effects of environmental
disasters.
Figure 6-1 illustrates how one hazard such as deforestation
can impact the ecosystem and generate other potential natural
disasters such as landslides, and floods, as well as replenishment
of the atmosphere and global warming.
This chapter discusses the use of MCDA in providing environmental
disaster relief support. Although the focus is on responding
to sudden on-set disasters, preventure aspects will also be
discussed
throughout the chapter.
Figure 6-1, Example of Environmental Degradation
6.1 Terminology
6.1.1. Environmental disaster. Environmental disasters threaten (biological) life and/or deny the utilisation of affected areas without adequate precautions and expanding over long periods of time.
6.1.2. Short-term effects. Short-term
effects happen immediately or within a few days after a disaster
(e.g. injuries, poisoning, radiation decease).
6.1.3. Long-term effects. Long-term effects
follow the advent of a disaster but are not immediately apparent
(e.g. malignant tumours or genetic defects resulting from
accumulation
of hazardous material).
Figure 6-2, Disaster Event Cycle
6.2 Possible Contributing Factors of Environmental
Disasters
6.2.1. Rapid industrial
growth in developing countries combined with (often imported)
new technology, lack of legislation, inadequate supervision of
safety procedures by public authorities and the lack of sufficient
training opportunities for local workers are some causes for
increasing
the risk of man-made/natural disasters.
6.2.2. Developing countries
are faced with an outdated nuclear, biological and chemical
industry,
which do not undergo the some periodic renovations as experienced
by many of the industrial States.
6.2.3. In many countries people live in close proximity to
nuclear, biological and chemical facilities. Moreover, millions
live near rivers, railways and roads where hazardous material
is transported. For man-made/natural disasters people living in
neighbouring areas/countries may also become victims and therefore
increase their vulnerability to these hazards.
6.3 Classification of Environmental Disasters
Environmental disasters are classified into two major categories:
man-made disasters involving nuclear, biological, chemical
disasters
and war/civil strife scenarios; and natural disasters usually
caused by natural hazards. Each category impacts the way MCDA
is mobilised and is differentiated by the underlying causes which
create them.
6.3.1 Although we have categorised environmental disasters,
in reality they overlap. The impact of environmental disasters
have short-term as well as long-term effects and must be addressed
as such when each scenario is examined. Annex A references many
of the disaster scenarios which may characterise the short-term
effects of environmental disasters. Others include:
Typical primary effects
Typical secondary effects
Man-Made Disasters
Possible man-made disasters are listed in the following table:
Figure 6-3, Scenarios
6.3.2.1 Nuclear disasters
Nuclear threats are differentiated between military (caused by
belligerent actions or civil war) and non military causes.
Non-military causes:
Military causes:
The implications of nuclear disasters are varied depending on
the actual event and kind of liberated radioactive isotopes.
Comparing
explosions of nuclear weapons with atomic-reactor accidents one
identifies different fall-out characteristics and therefore
different
assault-potential. Decontamination measures must be tailored
accordingly.
Based on these causes and resulting implications the employment
of military and civil defence forces is probable. Force structure
mobilisation will be determined after a mission analysis (see
Chapter 4). A Multi-National Service Package (MSP) could be
developed
to include National Service Modules (NSM). These NSM's could
include:
6.3.2.2 Biological Disasters
Like the nuclear threat, biological threats and disaster-types
are differentiated between military (caused by belligerent actions
or civil war) and non-military causes. Biological disaster
scenarios
can be viral, bacteriological or fungal. The incubation period
varies and is dependent on the type of infestation.
Non-military causes:
Military causes:
According to its hazardous potential, each scenario has to be
considered differently and analysed carefully. Influences of
meteorological conditions (especially temperature), soil condition
and structure are important to estimate the dimensions of the
disaster. The scope of the disaster may take on the following
possible effects:
Based on these causes and resulting implications the employment
of military and civil defence forces are probable. Their deployment
would depend on the actual event or accident. The types of MCDA
forces that could be used for biological accidents include:
6.3.2.3 Chemical Disasters
The extent of chemical disaster scenarios are, influenced by the
military - non-military circumstance. In many peacetime scenarios
industrial man-made chemical accidents are more probable. Natural
disasters where volcanic activities occur highlight the dynamics
of the natural environment in contributing to the chemical hazards
leading to disaster. Examples include:
Non-military causes:
Military causes:
The effects of chemical disasters are dependent on the actual
event, possible chemical reactions, the kind of liberated dangerous
compounds and the kind of occurrence (solid, liquid, gaseous).
Influences of meteorological conditions, especially temperature
and winds, are of importance to estimate the dimensions of a
disaster.
According to its hazardous potential, each scenario and analysed
carefully for possible effects on the environment. Decontamination
measures will have to be applied accordingly. Examples of possible
effects include:
Based on these causes and resulting effects the employment of
military and civil defence forces is probable. The types of
MCDA forces include:
6.3.3 Natural Disasters
Natural disasters occur when natural phenomena create violent
climatic, hydrological, or geological processes that threaten
populated areas. Details on the causal effects of natural
disasters
are found in Annex A.
6.4 Relief Activities in Environmental Disasters
6.4.1 Pre-deployment measures
To achieve successful operations using MCDA in man-made and natural
disasters, it is necessary to initiate effective command and
control
to ensure a constant flow of information exists between all command
levels. Assessment is critical. Initial situation reports
(SITREPS)
must be specific and should include:
6.4.2 Tasks
Basic tasks should be executed by military and civil defence
forces.
These tasks are based on the scenario and would be developed
during mission planning. Specific and implied tasks should be
identified under each function listed below:
6.4.3 Force selection
Force selection is based on the objectives and tasks needed to
accomplish the mission. The following forces should be considered
to perform the tasks mentioned above:
6.4.4. Operational factors
Sudden on-set environmental disasters strike quickly, with little
warning, and may impact a large population. The following
governing
factors should be considered when preparing and selecting a course
of action:
6.4.5 Co-ordination of international relief activity in the
Receiving State
The Receiving State should be prepared to provide basic information
about the operational area. The UNDHA can deploy an Onsite
Operations
Coordination Centre (OSOCC) to assist the local government
authorities
in co-ordinating the information listed below. International
relief teams can begin their missions once the information has
been validated:
6.4.6 Withdrawal and demobilisation
To finish a relief mission using military and civil defence forces,
local government authorities, through the MC/D Command Structure,
in co-ordination and assisted by the OSOCC, should assist in their
redeployment by providing:
6.4.7 Post operational measures
Military and civil defence forces should keep accurate records
or a running events log to assist in preparation of after-action
reports and in the development of lessons learned for future
analysis.
6.4.8 Safety and health considerations
The nature of military and civil defence activities may require
personnel to operate in potentially toxic environments. A
comprehensive
program to include frequent risk assessments, of protective
measures
for involved personnel should consist of:
Military and civil defence commanders must ensure that a systematic
approach is adopted to minimise the risk of NBC exposure. Such
an approach should consist of:
6.4.9 Co-operation with organisations/agencies
During MCDA-disaster relief operations co-operation with other
national/ international organisations/agencies is of great
importance.
The deployment of these organisations/agencies in disaster relief
differs relating to the time element and mandate. Nevertheless,
close co-operation and mutual support between all involved forces
is essential to guarantee optimal assistance in environmental
disaster relief. The co-ordination of all on-site forces has to
be ensured by local government authorities - with the assistance
of the a mutually agreed command and control structure, and the
UN's OSOCC, when deployed.
Figure 6-4, The International Disaster Relief
Assistance
(IDRA) community
6.5 Preparedness Checklists
A series of checklists have been prepared to assist military and
civil defence environmental disaster relief support operations.
These are found in Annex H. Additional disaster preparedness
checklists can be found in Chapter 3.
6.6 Safety standards
It is essential that minimum proficiency standards for key safety
related activities are specified, achieved and maintained for
MCDA taking part in disaster relief missions. Detailed proficiency
requirements have to be drawn up, test procedures and criteria
established, and periodic testing processes implemented. The
following activities should be included:
Civilian control of disaster relief operations is essential.
While most industrialised countries have an extensive civil defence
infrastructure, countries in the developing world frequently lack
the expertise and resources needed to fulfil their crucial role
in resolving environmental disasters alone. Donor States and
international relief organisations such as the UN, as well as
those mentioned in Figure 6-4, can assist the Affected State
with the resource shortfall.
Military and civil defence assets are only one of the resources available within a nation or international community. These assets should be considered as part of the overall package and only if they are absolutely essential or a part of the national response mechanism to the disaster. MCDA is ideally suited to respond to the initial effects of environmental disasters and when used effectively provides the Affected State with the leverage to get the emergency under control. Using MCDA is a short-term solution to a potentially long-term rehabilitation effort.