Chapter 3

THE DYNAMICS OF NATIONAL DISASTER RELIEF STRATEGY AND GENERAL PREPAREDNESS MEASURES

• Section I - Basic Principles that Govern Cooperation and Coordination of Humanitarian and Disaster Relief - describes basic principles that govern cooperation and coordination of humanitarian and disaster relief. Extracts from the Oslo General Guidelines regarding letters and status of forces agreements are included in Annex C.
• Section II - General Principles of Emergency Response - provides more practical information that should be considered in the drafting of national disaster relief strategies and contingency plans. Disaster reductions/mitigation, emergency response and post disaster information is included in this section.
• Section III - General Questions that Address Disaster Reduction and Mitigation.

Section I :
Basic Principles That Govern Cooperation and Coordination of Humanitarian and Disaster Relief

A strengthening of the international consensus on principles can help to prevent humanitarian assistance from being misunderstood as an interference with the internal affairs of the receiving State and to promote the implementation of the humanitarian obligations of the receiving States in cooperation with the assisting States and organizations on the basis of equality.

The recognition and implementation of the principles set out below must not prejudice the applicability of any agreements to which an Assisting State or organization or a Receiving State is party. A Receiving State and an Assisting State or organization may agree on specific terms for the conduct of humanitarian assistance operations. A legally binding recognition and adequate implementation of the following principles would enhance the effectiveness of many humanitarian assistance operations.

3.1 General Principles for Enhancing Effectiveness

3.1.1 Nondiscrimination. Humanitarian assistance should be provided on an impartial basis without any adverse distinction to all persons in urgent need.

3.1.2 Responsibility of the Receiving State. Primary responsibility for providing humanitarian assistance within the limits of the resources available rests with the national authorities of the State where persons are in need.

3.1.3 Responsibility of the assisting States and organizations. All States, organizations and persons capable of doing so should contribute to humanitarian assistance operations within the limits of the resources available to them and in accordance with the human needs to be met and the requirements set by the Receiving State.

3.1.4 Purpose. The conduct of humanitarian assistance operations on the territory of any State shall have the purpose of seeking to alleviate human suffering and to preserve human life among those in urgent need. Humanitarian assistance is intended for the immediate benefit of specified groups of persons in urgent need. It shall be provided, received and employed exclusively for this purpose.


3.1.5 Conditions. Humanitarian assistance shall only be provided in accordance with the principle and rules of international law and, in particular, the following conditions:
3.1.5.1 Respect for the sovereignty, political independence and territorial integrity of the receiving State;

3.1.5.2 Cooperation with the authorities of the Receiving State and respect for and observance of its laws during humanitarian assistance operations conducted on its territory;


3.1.5.3 Abstention from any activity inconsistent with the purpose of humanitarian assistance.

3.1.6 Noninterference. Humanitarian assistance should be treated as a nonpolitical matter and consequently the offer of such assistance ought not to be regarded as an interference in the internal affairs of the Receiving State.

3.1.7 Assistance by Armed Forces. The deployment of armed forces is particularly helpful and successful in such cases where they could use unique resources which are not readily available in civilian relief organizations.


International disaster relief assistance by armed forces should be conducted under the following principles:


3.1.7.1 Disaster relief by the armed forces and national civil defence organizations is provided in addition to the work of non-governmental relief organizations (NGOs).


3.1.7.2 Armed forces need not be deployed as long as civil defence organizations and NGOs master the disaster with their personal and material capabilities.


3.1.7.3 International disaster relief assistance is supplementary to the relief assets of the Receiving State. Support operations by the armed forces require the consent of the Receiving State.


3.1.7.4 International disaster relief assistance is performed in accordance with the human needs to be met and the requirements set by the Receiving State.


3.1.7.5 The Receiving State is responsible for the safety of the relief personnel and relief material of the Assisting State. In principle, military personnel of the Assisting State should be unarmed. But weapons for self-defence may be carried subject to agreement between the Assisting State and the Receiving State.


3.1.7.6 International disaster relief assistance is based on the principle of sovereignty of the Receiving State and the neutrality and impartiality of the Assisting State.


3.1.7.7 In principle international disaster relief assistance should be provided at no cost to the Receiving State. The national defence budgets of the Assisting State can, however, not exclusively be burdened with these costs.

3.2 Cooperation Between Assisting States or Organizations

3.2.1. Information and coordination. Humanitarian assistance operations should be coordinated at the national and international levels. The Assisting State or organization and the Receiving State should exchange with the Department of Humanitarian Affairs and with any other coordination mechanism set up by the United Nations Secretary-General concerning all facts, developments or action taken that may be relevant to the conduct of humanitarian assistance operations.

3.3 Cooperation with the Receiving State

3.3.1 Information and coordination. The Assisting State or organization and the Receiving State should cooperate to exchange with each other information concerning all facts, developments or action taken that may be relevant to the conduct of humanitarian assistance operations and they should designate a single competent authority for that purpose.

3.3.2 Mediation. An impartial international organization acceptable to both the Assisting State or organization and the Receiving State may, upon their joint request, agree to serve as an intermediary with respect to any needs or matters arising in connection with humanitarian assistance operations.

3.3.3 Distinctive sign. An internationally recognized distinctive sign may be used for indicative purposes to identify humanitarian assistance consignments, services and personnel. The applicable rules governing the use of the United Nations flag and emblem and of the Red Cross and Red Crescent emblems shall be respected.

3.3.4 Facilitation of transport in third States. The transit of humanitarian assistance consignments or personnel of an Assisting State or organization to or from a Receiving State across or over the territory of any other State should be expedited as a matter of urgent priority. In particular, permission for overflight and staging should be granted without delay and any landing fees or related charges should be waived.


3.3.5 Responsibilities of the Assisting State or organization. The Assisting State or organization shall ensure that the humanitarian assistance provided is suitable for meeting assessed needs in every respect. The Assisting State or organization shall pack, classify and mark humanitarian assistance consignments in accordance with appropriate standards and an established system, ensure the use of simplified commercial documentation for humanitarian assistance consignments based on an internationally recognized model and comply with quality standards and other relevant regulations applicable to humanitarian assistance consignments. Moreover, the Assisting State or organization shall notify the Receiving State of the appropriate details including names, positions and functions of the personnel designated for service in humanitarian assistance operations.


3.3.6 Rights and responsibilities of the Receiving State. The Receiving State may decide whether or not to request or give its consent to humanitarian assistance activities on its territory and may determine in consultation with the Assisting State or organization the moment of commencement and of termination of such assistance. Having requested or consented to receive humanitarian assistance, the Receiving State shall have responsibility, within its territory, for coordinating humanitarian assistance operations and, in particular, for:
3.3.6.1 designating a competent national authority to coordinate humanitarian assistance operations;

3.3.6.2 delegating any special tasks which are necessary in coordinating humanitarian assistance operations to the most appropriate organizations or persons;


3.3.6.3 providing to the designated personnel of the Assisting State or organization all information concerning any facts, developments or action taken that may be relevant to the effective implementation of humanitarian assistance operations;


3.3.6.4 expediting with urgent priority the delivery of humanitarian assistance consignments to those in need;


3.3.6.5 facilitating in every way possible the humanitarian activities of the Assisting State or organization and of their designated personnel;


3.3.6.6 protecting in every way possible the humanitarian activities of the assisting State or organization and their designated personnel;


3.3.6.7 waiving the usual commercial documentation requirements or applying simplified procedures based on an internationally recognized model for the importation of humanitarian assistance consignments;


3.3.6.8 waiving any prohibitions, restrictions or regulations which would otherwise delay the importation of humanitarian assistance consignments to the extent compatible with reasonable health and safety standards;


3.3.6.9 exempting humanitarian assistance consignments from customs duties and all other fees, taxes or charges of any kind;


3.3.6.10 waiving or simplifying normal visa requirements for designated personnel of the Assisting State or organization so as to permit entry and exit without delay;


3.3.6.11 authorizing the Assisting State or organization to operate its own means of communication unless serious national security interests would be prejudiced thereby;


3.3.6.12 authorizing the Assisting State or organization to operate its own means of transportation;


3.3.6.13 rendering logistic support to the Assisting State or organization within the limits of the resources available and without charge;


3.3.6.14 ensuring and facilitating freedom of access to and freedom of movement within the area of humanitarian assistance operations for the designated personnel of the Assisting State or organization for the purposes of their mission;


3.3.6.15 granting to the Assisting State or organization and to designated personnel the necessary privileges, protection and facilities required to enable humanitarian assistance operations to be carried out effectively.

3.3.7 Obligations of assisting personnel. At all times during humanitarian assistance operations the assisting personnel shall:

3.3.7.1 confine their activities to purely humanitarian tasks required by the nature of their mission;

3.3.7.2 cooperate with the designated competent authority of the receiving State;


3.3.7.3 prevent the occurrence of any abuse of privileges, protection or facilities granted;


3.3.7.4 respect and observe the laws and customs of the Receiving State;


3.3.7.5 refrain from misuse of information obtained in confidence.

Section II :
General Principles of Emergency Response

This section describes the main elements of an emergency and post-disaster response. It highlights aspects to which the responsible authorities and assisting agencies need to give particular attention.

3.4 Principal Elements and Objectives

3.4.1 Disaster response aims. The overall aims of disaster response (emergency and post-disaster assistance) are to:

• Ensure the survival of the maximum possible number of people, and maintain them in the best possible health given the circumstances.
• Re-establish self-sufficiency and essential services as quickly as possible for all population groups, with special attention to those most vulnerable, and underprivileged and whose needs are usually the greatest.
• Repair or replace damaged infrastructure, and regenerate viable economic activities. To do this in a manner that contributes towards long-term development goals and reduces the vulnerability and risks associated with any future recurrence of potentially damaging hazards.
3.4.2 Three phases in national emergency response. It is useful to distinguish three phases in emergency response, which emphasize different actions:


3.4.2.1 Disaster alert (warning/pre-impact period): the period beginning when a public warning of an imminent disaster threat is issued until its actual impact (or the threat passes and the warning is lifted). During this period, precautionary or containment measures are taken to minimize the potential adverse effects of the expected disaster. This can include: evacuation of people and animals; tying down roofs before a storm; building emergency earthworks to contain or divert rising flood waters; and mobilizing fire-fighting resources to prevent a major conflagration.


3.4.2.2 Relief phase: the period immediately following the occurrence of a sudden disaster, or the late discovery of a neglected (and thus deteriorated) slow-onset situation. In this phase, exceptional measures are needed to save and sustain the lives of survivors and to help them meet basic needs for shelter, water, food, and medical care. Relief activities are continued for as long as there are serious and immediate threats to human life and well-being, and people are unable to meet their basic survival needs. Activities include:


• Search and rescue to find and rescue trapped or isolated survivors.
• Providing relief, the humanitarian assistance needed to ensure the survival of the most severely affected.
• Establishing essential communications and transport services to support these operations.

3.4.2.3 Post-disaster recovery phase: the period during which actions are taken to enable survivors to resume normal lives and means of livelihood, and restore infrastructure, services, and the economy in a manner appropriate to long-term needs and defined development objectives. Certain relief or welfare measures which favor specific disadvantaged, and more vulnerable groups may continue for some time during this phase. Recovery encompasses both:


• Rehabilitation, the re-establishment of basic community services and the restoration of basic living conditions.
• Reconstruction, the repair or replacement of damaged physical structures and major infrastructure.




3.4.3 Response phasing. The phasing of the various activities is shown in Figure 3-1. Precautionary measures are taken based on plans prepared during the deliberate planning process. Post-disaster emergency responses are planned and implemented on the basis of post-impact assessments. The disaster alert and relief phases together, constitute the "emergency phase".





Figure 3-1 Emergency and post-disaster interventions

3.5 Myths and Reality

3.5.1 Inaccurate assumptions from myths People often make inaccurate assumptions about the effects of natural disasters and, in particular, the behavioral responses of the affected populations.


The following paragraphs list some of the more common myths and the conclusions of experienced professional observers. The prevalence of these myths and the actual realities must be kept in mind by those in government and assistance agencies who plan and undertake emergency assistance operations.



3.5.1.1 Panic and disorderly flight in the face of danger. In fact, few people are observed to panic in the face of a natural disaster. Even when an evacuation is ordered, the majority of local inhabitants are reluctant to act and do not want to leave. When forced to evacuate, most move in a responsible manner.


3.5.1.2 Disaster survivors are shocked and helpless. On the contrary, the motivation of the uninjured survivors is often the greatest resource in saving others, providing casualty care, restoring essential services, and beginning the process of recovery. Their reactions are sometimes more rational than those of outside relief workers. However, interveners who act as if survivors were helpless can create a sense of helplessness and dependence. Those who take a paternebatic approach to dispensing assistance can create unrealistic expectations and demands from the survivors.


3.5.1.3 Anti-social behavior and looting are common. Studies do not support this common belief. There are few verified cases of large-scale looting or other forms of crime in the immediate aftermath of a disaster. However, most disaster survivors do prefer to remain as close as possible to their homes to protect their property and their right of occupation.



3.5.2 Other myths. Other myths which are contradicted by experience and research include:


3.5.2.1 Disasters are random killers. In reality, the poor are hardest hit, especially women, children and the elderly.


3.5.2.2 Search and rescue depends on formal rescue organizations. In reality, the majority is done by fellow survivors.


3.5.2.3 Survivors rely on relief organizations for their immediate needs. In reality, they help each other to seek help from friends, family, and local institutions such as their religious community.


3.5.2.4 Public shelters and temporary relief camps are needed after a disaster. In reality, people go to shelters only as a last resort. Resources invested in establishing temporary shelter after a disaster may be better used to support immediate repair and reconstruction efforts, or at least to provide materials which can be reused in such efforts.


3.5.2.5 Epidemics are an immediate threat after every disaster. In reality, epidemics do not spontaneously occur after a disaster, and the presence of corpses does not lead to catastrophic outbreaks of disease. The key to preventing disease is to improve sanitary conditions and educate the public.


3.5.2.6 News media accounts are generally reliable. In reality, they are often inaccurate, or at least misleading by focusing on the most extreme cases of damage, which are not typical.


3.5.2.7 Things are back to normal within a few weeks. In reality, the effects of a disaster last a long time-much longer than the international interest and sympathy evoked initially by the disaster.


3.5.2.8 Any kind of assistance is useful, and is needed immediately. In reality, hasty responses based on impartial assessments contribute to chaos and consume valuable resources which could be better used for other priority needs. The local population and services often cover immediate life-saving needs.

3.6 Role and Effects of Emergency and Post-Disaster Assistance

3.6.1 Direct assistance to survivors. A variety of sources typically provide direct assistance to survivors. These include neighbors and friends within the affected community, other less-affected communities in the vicinity, local religious and other community-based organizations, the local Red Cross/Red Crescent society and the local administration (including any emergency and rescue services). Contingents of the national armed forces based in the immediate area are normally mobilized and involved from an early stage.


3.6.2 Community self-reliance. Initial action to provide medical care and to try to restore essential services (notably telecommunications, water and power supplies) is similarly taken by the technicians living and working in the area. They are more effective if preparedness plans have been established and tested in advance.


3.6.3 Outside assistance from within. The first wave of "outside" assistance comes with the arrival of personnel, supplies, and equipment from provincial national Government, and NGOs which are well-established in the country. While helping to provide immediate assistance, these "interveners" have as a priority to assess the situation and determine the needs for both relief and recovery assistance.


3.6.4 International assessment. Representatives of the international community resident in the country may accompany the first national government and/or NGO personnel into the area (or follow close behind) to participate in or make their own assessments. To the extent that they can commit resources, they may immediately arrange some initial assistance. The bulk of international assistance, where such is required, will be mobilized only after the findings and recommendations of the initial assessments become known. Some may have been assembled and dispatched from donor countries and organizations earlier, on the basis of initial news reports and other preliminary information, but such shipments might not be entirely appropriate.


3.6.5 Tailoring international assistance. In all cases, assistance, particularly international assistance, should be specifically designed to support and complement local efforts and resources. It should focus on, and normally be restricted to, providing personnel and material assistance which fill a priority need and cannot otherwise be mobilized locally. Keeping the objective clearly in mind, the aim of promoting rapid and sustainable recovery as well as meeting humanitarian needs must be planned to take into account long-term implications as well as short-term considerations.


3.6.6 Underestimating national recovery capability. In practice, outside assistance agencies frequently underestimate the resources and capacity of the affected populations to take responsibility for their own survival and recovery. An experienced researcher has noted that material assistance following sudden disasters generally:


• Far exceeds actual needs.
• Is in proportions larger than needed or usable.
• Requires services and facilities that could be used for more essential tasks.
• Often causes conflicts among relief agencies.
• Adds to the problem of congestion.
• May disrupt the local economy.




3.6.7 Inhibiting local initiative. Providing unnecessarily large quantities of relief can have negative effects and can create dependency, undermining the markets for local producers. Even the expectation or anticipation of large-scale assistance can inhibit local initiative in relation to basic humanitarian needs, as well as social and economic recovery. In some cases, supplies distributed to disaster survivors are never used, and many of the initial, "temporary" measures (repairs of temporary shelters) are never replaced. They become permanent.


3.6.8 Local economy is priority. The re-establishment of the local economy and job security is likely to be more important to many of the survivors than ad hoc material assistance. Specifically with regard to reconstruction, one authority suggests that: "...the majority of people affected are the poor. For the poor, disasters represent lost property, jobs and economic opportunity. In real terms they can represent an enormous economic setback. This approach may also assist in solving the difficult problem of how to assist survivors of disasters among the populations of unauthorized squatter settlements. Therefore, reconstruction assistance should be designed to:


• Relieve the economic strain and reduce the cost of reconstruction...
• Inject capital into the community...
• Create employment opportunities...
• Support and strengthen existing economic enterprises."




3.6.9 Long-term considerations. In situations where large numbers of people are displaced for extended periods, the survival of many may depend on large-scale humanitarian assistance for extended periods. In cases of natural sudden onset disasters, international assistance rarely plays a major role during the actual emergency phase. It can, on the other hand, make a vital contribution to rehabilitation and the gradual process of recovery, including incorporating relevant mitigation measures. These, rather than relief, should normally be the main focus of international aid organizations (vice military or civil defense assets) and external donors in the wake of most sudden disasters. However, donors should be ready to respond rapidly if specific unmet relief needs are clearly identified and specified.


3.6.10 Short-term disaster relief. If international search and rescue teams are required, they must be on-site and operational within 24-48 hours to be useful. Similar considerations also apply in many cases to medical specialist or surgical teams as well as international MCDA.

3.7 Key Aspects of Effective Response

3.7.1 Three elements. The quality of three elements - communications, information, and coordination, largely determine the effectiveness and the appropriateness of the disaster response.



3.7.1.1 The rapid establishment of telecommunication links with all affected areas is essential for both reporting assessment data and operational management. The latter also demands the capability to link with all locations where supplies could be obtained and stored.


3.7.1.2 Information about diverse needs, resources on-hand and/or in the pipeline, and logistic capacities and constraints, is the basis for decisions regarding resource allocations and operations management at all levels. Information must be reliable, up-to-date, and intelligently analyzed. It must also be shared, regularly, with all concerned. Systems must ensure the reporting of relevant information and its systematic storage, analysis, and use by policy makers and operational managers. Personal computers with database and spreadsheet software are valuable tools, provided personnel are experienced in their use. Graphics and mapping programs are additional valuable aids if user expertise is available. Use of E-Mail, and teleconferencing can link national and international sources to practitioners at the disaster site.


3.7.1.3 Many different groups have roles which may be interrelated, or even overlapping. The coordination of all activities and efforts is essential for achieving objectives and making the most effective use of available resources. Coordination must be at both formal and informal. Regular meetings between the responsible government authorities, operational agencies (particularly the Red Cross/Red Crescent and NGOs), donors, and the UN organizations are an absolute necessity. During any major emergency, there should also be broad-based meetings at national and district levels. Experience shows the value of sub-groups being formed on specific topics (such as health and nutrition, shipping, and logistics). Informal meetings of each distinct group of "interveners" (government agencies, NGOs, external donors) can also be useful.


3.7.1.4 Ideally, a UN focal point for coordinating HADRO at the international, national and local levels would establish command and control of vital life saving resources, by avoiding duplication and tailoring of IDRA to the emergency at hand.



3.7.2 Assessment quality. The quality of the assessment determines, in large part, the quality of the response and the extent to which objectives are achieved. The availability of resources is also clearly a key factor to the possibilities of mobilizing resources, both nationally and internationally, is significantly influenced by the perceived quality of the assessment. The needs and proposed assistance strategies must be presented convincingly.



3.7.3 Timing. The initial assessment - must be completed rapidly in all areas in order to provide a basis for a fair allocation of resources, not disfavoring the less accessible areas. Nevertheless ongoing - more detailed assessments should occur throughout the duration of the crisis and recovery periods.


3.7.4 Decisive action. Once these prerequisites are assured, effective response depends on decisive action to implement the selected strategies. Leadership and a practical, problem-solving approach is required at all levels. While clear overall direction is needed from the responsible national authority (setting policies and standards, and defining basic criteria and procedures), management responsibility should normally be decentralized as much as possible.



3.7.5 Other considerations. Other practical considerations include:


3.7.5.1 Establishing overall priorities. The focus initially should be on areas where damage and losses are expected to be greatest, and on saving lives and enabling critical facilities and lifeline services to function.


3.7.5.2 Enabling local communities to participate fully in defining local priorities for rehabilitation, and social and economic recovery.


3.7.5.3 Phasing rehabilitation and reconstruction measures over a realistic time period, and similarly planning the delivery of all large-scale programs, and corresponding assistance inputs, in phases. This allows the possibility of mid-term corrections, if needed.


3.7.5.4 Making constructive use of all available mechanisms to achieve the desired objectives, including using the private sector, where appropriate, to arrange the delivery of supplies. (The government or assistance agencies might provide stamps or coupons which entitle the bearer to obtain specified goods at controlled, subsidized prices from commercial suppliers.)



3.7.6 Post-disaster assessment. Post-disaster "assessment" is a complex, inter-disciplinary process which involves:


3.7.6.1 Determining the impact of events on individuals and the society as a whole, the direct and indirect effects and losses incurred, and the resources remaining to the survivors and communities concerned.


3.7.6.2 Making judgments and recommendations concerning objectives and, in particular:


• The requirements for assistance (e.g. emergency relief, health and medical assistance) needed to save and sustain lives, and the practical possibilities (e.g. organizational and logistics) for delivering that assistance.
• The possible ways of restoring (or providing) essential services, and reviving the economy, including capitalizing on any opportunities for new approaches to promote rapid, self-sustaining recovery and development.

3.8 General Principles of Emergency and Post-disaster Interventions

Effective disaster response requires:

• Professional assessments leading to agreed definitions of need and appropriate assistance strategies.
• Close coordination and information-sharing between all involved parties, and a concerted action to mobilize and allocate the required resources.
• Efficient management arrangements.
• Continuous monitoring of the situation and operational performance, and responsiveness to new information and changing needs.

3.9 Basic Principles of Development-oriented Humanitarian Assistance

3.9.1 PRO's. The type, scale, timing and manner of delivery of assistance should be designed to:

• Promote the establishment of self-reliance among the affected communities.
• Contribute towards long-term development and, in particular, reduce the vulnerability of the populations concerned to future food scarcities.

3.9.2 CON's. Assistance should not:


• Be a disincentive to local agricultural production or marketing.
• Disturb normal patterns of seasonal migration.
• Undermine traditional coping and sharing processes.
• Undermine ongoing development projects and activities (such as cooperative cereal banks).
• Create dependency.

In the context of refugees and displaced persons, durable solutions should be supported as early as possible.

3.10 Normal Community and Family Environment

• Enable people to remain in their home areas and prevent abnormal/forced migrations by eliminating the need for whole families to migrate in search of food or work.
• Facilitate an early return to their homes of people who were forced to evacuate temporarily or who became displaced. This should include provisions to reunite family members with special emphasis.
• Enable family and household units to function as the basic social units, in particular in food preparation and eating.

3.11 Reach and Assist the Most Needy and Most Deprived

• Priority is given to the most severely affected areas.
• Within any area, assistance is "targeted" on groups and individuals most in need, particularly those who have no other means or resources available to them.
• Where food aid supports development activities (such as in creating or repairing infrastructure through food-for-work projects), the investment should benefit the community as a whole and the most needy and deprived over the long-term.

3.12 Self-help and Community Participation

• Recognize and respect the abilities of the affected people to help them determine the priorities to help themselves. They should be enabled and encouraged to take the maximum responsibility for their own situation and future.
• Support self-help initiatives and promote the mobilization of community resources.

3.13 Public Knowledge and Accountability

• Publicize the details - including the policies, rationale, allocations, entitlements and selection criteria -among the intended beneficiaries as well as to those who manage the operation, and other population groups in the vicinity.
• Involve representatives of local committees wherever possible in publicly deciding and organizing local distributions.
• Explain the specific objectives of the assistance and its time period (the limit beyond which the particular form of assistance will be discontinued) to all, especially the beneficiaries.

3.14 Equitable Treatment/Uniform Standards of Provision

Although absolute standardization may not always be appropriate, equitability must be assured:

• Apply similar criteria and standards of provision. All organizations engaged in food assistance to different communities should use uniform standards as much as possible.
• The standard level of provisions distributed to displaced persons should not differ significantly from those available to the local population.

Section III:
General Questions and Checklist Items that Address Disaster Reduction and Mitigation

3.15 National Policies Towards Disaster Risks and Development Planning

• Are hazard-related risks considered in development planning? Is there a policy for risk reduction: at national level? for specific disaster -prone areas?
• Are there institutional mechanisms to integrate risk concerns into development planning and ensure inter-sectoral coordination?
• If/when new human settlements are planned, are natural hazards and disaster risks considered, and appropriate measures built into the planning?

3.16 Awareness and Analysis of Risks and Options

• What is the level of awareness of the hazard-related risks among officials in central planning and sectoral bodies?
• What impact have disasters (and all forms of hazard impacts) had on development efforts and on the situation of the most vulnerable groups in society?
• Have data on known hazards (natural and human-made) been analyzed? Have hazard maps been prepared? Are the data and maps updated as hazard conditions change, or as new populations or economic activities move into the hazardous areas?
• Have the populations, infrastructure, agricultural and industrial economic assets, essential services, and development programs and investments at risk been fully identified?
• Have specific estimates been made of the likely social and economic effects of particular hazard impacts on the various elements at risk and on the society as a whole?

3.17 Institutional Arrangements For Disaster Management

• What arrangements exist at national level? Is there an entity in the national government with specific responsibility for all phases of disaster management? Is it adequately staffed, trained, and funded? Is it properly placed within the government structure?
• Are there specific entities at the regional, subregional, and community levels specifically responsible for disaster management? Are they adequately staffed, trained, and funded?

3.18 Warning and Other Preparedness Measures

• Are mechanisms in place that can issue warnings of disaster threats to populations at risk? Are warnings given with sufficient lead time? Do they make clear the risks involved and the action to take?
• Are there established arrangements at local, national and international levels? Are all concerned levels knowledgeable of their responsibilities, procedures to follow, and arrangements for coordination?
• Are these plans widely understood and regularly tested ? Are contingency plans prepared, widely disseminated, understood and regularly tested?
• Are there adequate communications systems, including back-up systems, for use in disaster response? Has national assets been identified that could participate in multinational disaster relief operations?
• Has a national first contact point been identified to coordinate international disaster relief with the UN-DHA at Geneva?
• How does national civil protection, civil defense and military units coordinate disaster relief operations at the local, national and international levels?

3.19 Human Resources for Disaster Management

• Is there a training program for disaster managers ?
• Is there a public information and education program?

3.20 Basic Information Required to Successfully Coordinate Disaster Relief

Promulgate key points of contact to all relevant governmental, non-governmental and international disaster relief providers, receivers and coordinators.
• Name
• Office address and telephone, fax, and telex numbers
• Home address and telephone number
• Electronic mail address, if the person has one.

3.20.1 Disaster profile of a country.


• The history of the incidence and magnitude of particular types of disasters in different areas; their impacts on the population and the economy.
• The types of emergency and post-disaster assistance provided from all sources in the past; the effectiveness of that assistance given the problems faced - the "lessons" learned.
• The kinds of needs which can be anticipated in particular areas and circumstances, and the kinds of assistance interventions which might be required.

3.20.2 National policies, objectives and standards.


• Policies with regard to the soliciting, acceptance and use of international assistance, including external personnel.
• The authority delegated to local institutions, and the possible roles of national NGOs and outside assistance agencies.
• Policies and criteria for distribution of relief: should it be on a free, for-sale or on a credit basis; what, if any, differentiation should be encouraged within and between different population subgroups.
• The particular objectives and standards which should be applied to ration scales for food and water, and any distribution of shelter materials and household supplies.
• Specification of the kinds of food and other commodities which are appropriate and acceptable as donations, and those which are not.
• General specifications for the kind of energy sources normally preferred for vehicles (diesel or petrol) and generators and pumps (diesel or electric).
• General priorities for the restoration of infrastructure and services.
• Policies and arrangements for importing emergency assistance supplies, such as arrangements for waiving fees and taxes or the clearance of special relief flights.

3.20.3 Government structures for warning and emergency response.


• The point of contact responsible for all national hazard forecasting and warning systems.
• The government contact (and deputy) normally responsible for management of emergency relief and post-disaster assistance operations in a central coordination body, if one exists. Contacts in individual ministries.
• The address and telephone/fax/telex numbers of any national disaster coordination center, and whether and how foreign donor officials will have access to the center during emergencies.
• The procedures established (at national and local levels) for assessing damage, needs and resources following the impact of a disaster.
• The contact in the national disaster management body or the sectoral ministries responsible for arranging and assuring:
  • Coordination and liaison with the international community (UN system (UN-DHA), embassies, NGOs).
  • Search and rescue operations.
  • Post-disaster surveys and assessments.
  • Food supply assistance, where needed.
  • Medical and preventive health care.
  • Water supplies.
  • Environmental sanitation.
  • Emergency shelter and other relief supplies.
  • Communications.
  • Logistics services (transport, storage and handling).
  • Information management (including records and reports).
  • Security.
• Role of the national armed forces and the relationship between civil defence/protection and military authorities in directing operations.
3.20.4 Other external and national assistance organizations.

• The contacts at the principal embassies and donor agencies, the potential contributions of their governments and organizations to post-disaster assistance operations, and the immediate resources they have locally on call.
• The contacts at the national Red Cross/Red Crescent Society and the principal NGOs, their potential contributions to emergency and post-disaster assistance operations, and the resources (human, material, and financial) they have on immediate call.
3.20.5 Base-line data on each distinct disaster-prone area.

• Demographic details: the location, size and socio-economic characteristics of communities, including average family size, sources and levels of income, and any traditional patterns of seasonal migration.
• Formal and informal leadership structures, any particular social or religious considerations, traditional community support processes at times of disaster, and any taboos.
• General climatic conditions, including day and night temperature at different times of the year.
• Local food habits, including weaning practices, of the various socio-economic groups.
• "Normal" nutritional status of women and children, including any normal seasonal variations.
• Diseases endemic to the area, including prevailing patterns of mortality and morbidity.
• Normal sources of water: sources and methods of extraction; treatment; and distribution.
• Food supply systems and local production; types, seasonal production cycles and normal yields of both major crops and small gardens, and average on-farm stock retention levels.
• Services operating (official and non-official); health, education, rural development, public works, and social welfare. This should include the location and specific nature of the services provided and the personnel employed.
• Coverage and general condition of the infrastructure, including roads, telecommunications, and electricity supplies.

3.20.6 Resources: material and human.


• "Resources" include supplies and services which can be mobilized in-country for emergency and post-disaster assistance operations. Potential sources include government bodies, commercial companies (locally or in a neighboring country), NGOs and other aid organizations and development projects operating in or near the areas at risk.

3.20.7 Medical/health care.


• Hospitals, clinics and other health facilities: number of beds, ambulances, availability of special equipment, number of trained doctors, nurses and nurses' aides; contacts at all facilities. <
• Stocks and sources of medical supplies: names, addresses, and telephone/fax/telex numbers of all medical supply stores; manufacturers of pharmaceuticals and supplies; and laboratories producing vaccines and serums.

3.20.8 Food supplies.


• Location, capacities, and normal stock levels of food stores; telephone/fax/telex numbers of government marketing boards, food supply departments, commercial importers, food wholesalers, and food aid donors.
• Details of existing food rationing and distribution programs (including food-for-work), their organizational arrangements, procedures, and capacity to meet emergency needs.

3.20.9 Nutrition and epidemology.


• Nature, location and capacity to any nutritional rehabilitation (therapeutic feeding) activities; their organizational arrangements, procedures and capacity to meet emergency needs.
• Extent and validity of any nutritional status surveys or surveillance programs; in-country sources of nutritional expertise (with relevant field experience).
• Location and capacity of epidemological surveillance and survey expertise linked to communicable disease control programs.

3.20.10 Water supplies, hygiene and environmental sanitation.


• Names, addresses, telephone/telex numbers of producers, large wholesalers, and retail outlets for the following types of supplies, including location and usual stock levels on inventory:
  • Water pumps, tanks, pipes and fittings.
  • Road tankers for hire or purchase.
  • Lime or other chemicals for water disinfection.
  • Hard bar soap, detergents, and disinfectants.
  • Materials for establishing temporary latrines.
  • Supplies and equipment for vector control operations.
• The quantities of these supplies normally available in government stocks in specified locations.
• The availability of mobile water treatment units and generators through the military or major contractors.
• Sources of trained personnel and tools to undertake rapid repairs or to construct new or temporary installations.

3.20.11 Emergency shelter and relief materials.


• Names, addresses, telephone/telex numbers of producers, large wholesalers, and retail outlets for the following types of supplies, including location and usual stock levels on inventory:
  • Heavy-duty tents, tarpaulins, thick polythene sheeting.
  • Corrugated roofing sheets, lumber, cement.
  • Blankets.
  • Cooking pots and utensils (household size, and institutional size for communal kitchens).
• The quantities of these supplies normally available in government stocks in specified locations.

3.20.12 Construction equipment.


• Names, addresses, telephone/telex numbers of road and building contractors, including their approximate availabilities of bulldozers, drag-lines, hoists, cranes, hydraulic jacks, mobile generator, and pumps.
• Contact points of government sources for the same types of equipment, for example, within the Ministry of Public Works or Defense.

3.20.13 Communications.


• Contacts within the responsible authorities for establishing telecommunications services, including the repair of normal systems and the installation of temporary radio networks, where needed.
• Policies concerning the use of communications equipment by international teams and aid organizations.

3.20.14 Logistics systems and facilities.

Logistics considerations include details of normal transport routes and capacities to and within the disaster-prone areas, and knowledge of the specific logistical problems likely to be faced moving supplies following a disaster.


• Roads
  • Have copies of the best available maps.
  • Identify essential road links and best alternative routes.
  • Mark potential choke points that could constrain truck movements or other limited factors (such as bridge load capacities and ferry movement capacities), and any points vulnerable to occurrences such as flooding or landslides.
• Trucking capacity
  • Government fleets: the number and condition of trucks of specified types and capacities in different departments and locations which might be available to transport relief supplies.
  • Commercial capacity: the contacts at private transport contractors able to operate to or within the areas concerned, including details of their fleets, the locations of their offices and maintenance facilities, and normal rates.
• Railways
  • Track gauges, wagon capacities, and any loading constraints on various lines.
  • Daily movement capacities on various lines, and the numbers of locomotives and wagons which might be available during each season.
  • Reliability and operational constraints, including any feasible measures to improve performance.
• Sea and river ports
  • Harbor depths draft, pier lengths, cargo harbor movements.
  • Daily discharge capacity, and seasonal patterns of exports and imports.
  • Size of covered and open storage areas, and amount normally available at different seasons.
  • Normal off load capacities for road and rail.
• Coastal and river craft
  • Government craft: the numbers and condition of boats, tugs and barges (of specified types and capacities) in different locations which might be available for rescue operations or to transport relief supplies.
  • Commercial capacity: contact within private shipping contractors able to operate to or within the areas concerned, including details of their fleets and normal rates.
• Airports and air-strips
  • The precise locations and the length, width, surface and load classification of runways in affected areas.
  • Largest type of aircraft able to operate.
  • Fuel availability (AVGAS and jet fuel).
  • Navigation and landing aids, and hours open for flying.
  • Cargo handling equipment and storage capacity.
• Aircraft and air transport
  • Government: number and types of aircraft and helicopters likely to be available to transport personnel and relief supplies; the approximate costs of operation of military and other government aircraft and helicopters.
  • National airline and other companies: number and types of aircraft and helicopters likely to be available to transport personnel and relief supplies; approximate charter costs.
• Storage and handling
  • Government warehouses: the location, size, and type of stores in different areas which might be available for relief supplies; the general condition of the stores, level of security, access to road and rail transport, the availability of pallets, hand trucks, and forklifts, and the adequacy of staff and record systems.
  • Private warehouses: as above for stores which might be requisitioned or rented.
• Fuel supplies (diesel and petrol)
  • The locations, capacities, and normal stock levels of government and commercial fuel storage depots; the arrangements by which fuel can be drawn or delivered from those depots.

3.21 Summary

This chapter describes a basic framework for developing a national disaster relief strategy. The principles in Section I highlight the need for Member States to enhance their ability to cope with sudden onset disasters. The strength of a national government to react to its own internal catastrophic disasters, impacts its ability to reach out to the international community.


Sections II and III build upon Section I by describing emergency response principles that should be considered when writing contingency plans; and providing checklists focusing on disaster reduction and mitigation.