Humanitarian assistance has been subjected to profound and dramatic change in recent years. A unprecedented number of people are caught in, and made vulnerable by, disasters and violent upheaval which kill, maim and displace and destroy vital means of survival.
In man-made disasters, humanitarian organizations are compelled to operate in war-torn societies where conflicting parties are often openly contemptuous of fundamental humanitarian norms. A major challenge for these organizations is safeguarding norms. A major challenge for these organizations is safeguarding the well-being of civilians and the provision of assistance in a manner consistent with humanitarian principles.
In addition, the international community is faced with the paradox of needing ever larger resources to address the immediate survival needs of victims while simultaneously recognizing that such action may deflect attention and support form initiatives essential to undoing the root causes of vulnerability and strife. Faced with these conflicting trends, humanitarian organizations have been reassessing the processes that shape the nature and impact of their interventions.
The onslaught of sudden crises, new challenges and competing needs have repeatedly highlighted the importance of a well-organized and adequately resourced mechanism for coordination, both within the multi-actor humanitarian arena and with other elements of the international system involved in crisis management and preemptive action. This is particularly evident in rapid and simultaneous mass population movements. It is often difficult to mobilize and deploy resources quickly in a manner which will prevent avoidable deaths. However, notwithstanding the importance of support from the international community, it is the people of the country directly affected who are primarily responsible for their own recovery and that of their communities.
Some vital progress has been made both in responding to the needs of victims and in generating a more cohesive approach within the United Nations system. However, as outlined in the present report, there are continuing areas of concern which weaken and impede the work of humanitarian organizations. The report opens with an examination of the volatile context within which the bulk of humanitarian assistance is being provided today. It examines the capacity of the United Nations system to respond to emergencies and reviews issues which affect recovery programmes. Recent activities in prevention and preparedness, especially with reference to natural disasters, are also highlighted. It should be noted that an extensive examination of natural disasters and disaster reduction activity will be the exclusive focus of a separate report to the Economic and Social Council in July 1995 on the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction. Finally, the present report concludes with recommendations for the consideration of Member States.
However, while there is a greater understanding of the processes
through which needs are identified, and much worthwhile action
has been taken to improve the response capacity of the United
Nations system, there are, none the less, major challenges which
need to be addressed in the dramatically changed climate of the
post-cold-war era.
The growth in the frequency and brutality of internal conflict is one of the defining features of the 1990s. The reality of contemporary warfare is self-evident. Victims are primarily civilians. They represent more than 90 per cent of casualties in most of the recent conflicts. Women and children bear the brunt of the fighting and are, invariably, a majority of those seeking refuge either as refugees or as internally displaced persons. In addition to physical abuse and deprivation, the victims of violence are often severely traumatized. Women must often contend with rape and sexual abuse and must assume sole responsibility for the safety of their families. Children are particularly vulnerable to violence and many are forcibly recruited into combat. People who are trapped in war zones, or who are unable or unwilling to flee, face major problems which have not yet been adequately dealt with by the international community. The absence of the protection and assistance which is generally available for refugees adds to the dangers faced by internally displaced persons and war-affected groups. In some situations, people in flight from the horrors of war are obliged to cross an international border in order to receive assistance from humanitarian agencies.
The violence of modern warfare is compounded by the increase in
the number of people affected. In 1960 there were 1.4 million
refugees around the world. By 1985, that figure had risen to
11.6 million and it had risen substantially again to 18.2 million
by 1992. Currently, there are some 25 to 30 million people who
are internally displaced and in need of assistance from the international
community. In addition, there are many other war-affected civilians,
as well as individuals who suffer tremendously in natural disasters.
The phenomenal increase in the number of people in need of humanitarian
assistance is directly related to the growing number of crises
that erupt in violent conflict. In 1959, 10 wars were raging,
while some 50 conflicts scar the international landscape in 1995.
The bulk of these wars are within States, a fact which has major
implications for ensuring compliance with humanitarian law.
The scale and depth of suffering in conflict situations confronting
the international community today is too often a consequence of
a disregard for fundamental humanitarian norms. In many instances,
the suffering endured by civilians is not an incidental element
of political and military strategies but constitutes its major
objective. Bosnia, Herzegovina and Rwanda are alarming examples
of what occurs when civilians are subjected to the full brutality
of contemporary warfare and gross violations of human rights.
Determination must be shown to enforce the rule of law and to
hold accountable those who are responsible for heinous crimes.
The establishment of an international tribunal to prosecute alleged
perpetrators of genocide and crimes against humanity in the former
Yugoslavia and Rwanda is a significant development which signals
an end to a culture of impunity. The inclusion of rape as a war
crime is equally significant and demonstrates an unwillingness
to ignore abuse that specifically targets women and girls. Taking
action that will advance the cause of justice in these conflicts
will also act as a deterrent to gross violations of human rights
in other volatile situations.
Action on human rights may also assist in resolving crises, or
at least facilitate the development of an environment conducive
to the homeward return of uprooted people. It is within this
context that funds from the Central Emergency Revolving Fund
were made available to accelerate and support activities undertaken
by the Centre for Human Rights in Rwanda. The United Nations
Children's Fund (UNICEF), the Office of the United Nations High
Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other relief organizations
also offered logistical and other support. Human rights and related
action is of critical importance to the effectiveness of humanitarian
programmes.
Disregard for humanitarian norms has major implications for the
overall impact and effectiveness of humanitarian action and the
well-being of those it is intended to support. The situation
in the former Yugoslavia is but one example of the way in which
humanitarian activity is restricted and supplies are diverted
and abused to achieve objectives that are diametrically opposed
to those of humanitarians. In other conflict settings, such as
Liberia, access to humanitarian assistance as an urgent and inalienable
right has been disrupted and denied for the express purpose of
achieving political objectives.
The limited means of humanitarian organizations to provide protection
is particularly glaring in conflict settings and in situations
characterized by gross violations of human rights. The Rwandan
experience illustrates the way in which the capacity of the United
Nations to provide protection and assistance is undermined when
inputs and distribution mechanisms are used for purposes that
are inimical to humanitarian objectives. Finding the means to
reach those in need without entrenching the power of abusive elements
is one of the most difficult challenges facing the humanitarian
community in recent times.
Disrespect for humanitarian norms also often implies added risk
for relief workers. As the number of conflicts increases so too
does the number of practitioners who have been wounded and killed,
sometimes deliberately, while carrying out their humanitarian
tasks. Left unchecked, this pattern is likely to have a negative
impact on the capacity of organizations to protect and provide
assistance to disaster victims. Disruption and diversion of relief
supplies has seen the emergence of "negotiated access"
as a widely used tool, notwithstanding its potential ramifications.
Dependence on the agreement of armed groups often makes the provision
of humanitarian assistance tenuous and subject to unacceptable
and dangerous conditions. Significantly, such "negotiated
presence" often serves to undermine the protection capacity
of organizations involved in humanitarian activities. Safeguarding
the concept and reality of "humanitarian space" when
the needs of war-affected groups are deemed secondary to political
and military priorities is one of the most significant challenges
currently confronting the humanitarian community.
The major obstacle facing humanitarian organizations is the absence
of sufficient political will and support for action to address
the underlying causes of crises. The provision of humanitarian
assistance in a vacuum is tantamount to managing only the symptoms
of a crisis. Experience shows that, in most instances, the effectiveness
of humanitarian endeavors in conflict settings is largely predicated
on successful action by the international community to resolve
the problems that provoked the crisis.
In some situations, such as Angola and Mozambique, a determined
effort has been made to stop the fighting and to consolidate the
peace. In other settings, such as Haiti, assertive action has
been taken to end oppression and the potential for violent conflict.
This is in dramatic contrast to other settings, such as the Sudan
where conflict has smoldered for 28 of the last 39 years. In
Burundi and Liberia, a volatile mix of circumstances points to
the need for action to strengthen the push for peace.
Liberia, Rwanda and the former Yugoslavia illustrate how the work
of humanitarian organizations is severely constrained in the absence
of measures focused on resolving the underlying causes of crises.
In sum, it is critically important that the international community
acknowledges the vital but limited role of humanitarian action
in complex crises. It is equally important to ensure that humanitarian
programmes are not used as a substitute for action needed to reverse
the dynamics of war and the circumstances which led to armed conflict.
The humanitarian agenda is often shaped by political attitudes
to particular crises, strategic interests in specific areas and
the attention span of the media. Such factors, which are for
the most part beyond the control of humanitarian organizations,
play an important role in the low level of attention and support
provided to victims of "silent" emergencies. Ideally,
and in a more humane world, assistance would be provided according
to need and the core principle of impartiality would have greater
relevance when responding to emergencies.
Action taken by the international community to end oppression
or bring about change by non-military means can have major ramifications
for those who are already victimized by inequitable political
and economic structures. Economic sanctions hit the poor hardest
and can have a deleterious impact on the work of humanitarian
organizations. As outlined in the position paper of the Secretary-General
entitled "Supplement to an Agenda for Peace" (A/50/60-S/1995/1),
there is a need for prior assessment of the likely impact of sanctions
and how these affect humanitarian considerations.
The scourge of land-mines is yet another major concern. The reality
of this insidious weapon demands greater accountability and more
accelerated action to curtail its use. Land-mines are both a
cause of suffering and an obstacle to its alleviation. Mines
kill some 800 people every month, maim thousands and are a major
hazard for impoverished rural dwellers uprooted by war. For many
people unable to cultivate land or to return home, the presence
of land-mines precludes meaningful peace long after wars have
officially ceased. An international meeting on mine clearance,
to be held in July 1995, is being organized to heighten awareness
regarding issues of uncleared mines and the coordination of assistance
in mine clearance. However, de-mining by itself is not a satisfactory
solution. The solution is a total ban on all forms of land-mines
and the components to make them.
Other factors which have an impact on the effectiveness of relief
and protection organizations include the relationship between
the level of resources and attention devoted to the prevention
of, preparedness for and recovery from disasters, and the amount
of resources required to meet the daily needs of people in camp
situations. Rwanda is but one example of current trends. Some
US$ 1 billion was spent in the first six months of the crisis.
The bulk of this was used for the immediate survival needs of
the millions who were uprooted and displaced in 1994. Although
resources were requested at an early stage for confidence-building
measures to facilitate and encourage the return of those who had
fled, and for action focused on the problem of genocide, only
a minuscule amount has been made available for activities that
are essential to ameliorating and resolving the underlying causes
of the cyclical strife which now characterizes Rwanda and other
parts of the Great Lakes region.
In more general terms, refugee spending doubled between 1990 and
1992. The cost of peace operations increased 5-fold in the same
period and 10-fold in 1994. Between 1989 and 1994, the amount
of resources used for humanitarian programmes has tripled from
$845 million to some $3 billion. The implications of these figures
cannot be ignored, particularly given the diminishing amount of
resources available to strengthen indigenous capacity and to reduce
vulnerability to crises.
There are obvious limitations to the capacity of humanitarian
organizations to assist people whose usual means of coping has
been violently disrupted or destroyed. Human insecurity and marginalization
fed by oppression, deprivation, abuse of fundamental rights, social
and economic imbalances, or a combination of these, are common
features of the many crisis situations now confronting the international
community. The need to tackle the root causes of suffering and
vulnerability is more acute than ever.
2.3.1 Department of Humanitarian Affairs. The Department
of Humanitarian Affairs is the entity within the United Nations
charged with ensuring the effective coordination of United Nations
humanitarian assistance, and with promoting actions to prevent,
or at least mitigate, the effects of natural and man-made disasters.
Within this larger context, the Department has focused its efforts
on five areas during the past year and will continue to do so
in the coming year.
A major focus for the Department of Humanitarian Affairs is the
advancement of humanitarian concerns. It is actively aware of
the need to ensure respect for the impartiality and neutrality
of humanitarian action and is a strong advocate of strengthening
compliance with humanitarian law.
A second theme is the ongoing refinement of the main tools provided
to the Department to promote coordination: the Inter-Agency Standing
Committee, the Central Emergency Revolving Fund and the consolidated
appeals process.
The third focus is the broadening and strengthening of the involvement
of all relevant entities in emergency coordination activities.
For example, the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights
and the representative of the Secretary-General for internally
displaced persons are now invited to attend Inter-Agency Standing
Committee meetings on items of concern to them. A "framework
for coordination" between the Department of Humanitarian
Affairs and the Departments of Political Affairs and of Peace-Keeping
Operations has been initiated. This process strengthens cooperation
in the analysis of early warning information and the planning
of preventive action, as well as fact finding and operations planning
during a crisis. In Rwanda, NGOs have formed part of the United
Nations coordination structure. NGOs also participated in several
consolidated appeals. The Department of Humanitarian Affairs
is working with the Office of the United Nations Security Coordinator
to strengthen further the capacity of that Office for quick action.
The fourth theme is the strengthening of support for in-country
coordination. With respect to natural disasters, the Department
of Humanitarian Affairs has strengthened stand-by capacities
through the further development of United Nations disaster assessment
and coordination teams and the military and civil defense assets
project. With respect to complex emergencies, the Inter-Agency
Standing Committee agreed in 1994 on the terms of reference for
humanitarian coordinators and the process and circumstances under
which they would be appointed. The restructured Department includes
a Rapid Response Unit, which has strengthened stand-by mechanisms
to provide staff in the field with the necessary support for the
coordination of humanitarian assistance.
The fifth focus is the promotion of system-wide improvements by
acting upon lessons learned from humanitarian experience and the
identification of new opportunities. Early warning systems, de-mining
and disaster management training are areas in which the Department
of Humanitarian Affairs is taking a lead to add value to the United
Nations humanitarian system. Recognizing the opportunities inherent
in the new information technologies, the Department has been working
closely with the United Nations organizations concerned, NGOs
and Governments to develop ReliefNet, an international information
sharing system focused on humanitarian needs and responses.
In addition to these five programmatic themes, the Department
of Humanitarian Affairs continues to engage in continuous efforts
to improve its internal functioning. In 1994, the Department
addressed its most pressing internal concerns with a reorganization,
creating a unified desk officer structure in New York as the core
of a new Complex Emergency Division. Among other changes was
the consolidation of the Mitigation Branch and the secretariat
of the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction into
one division dealing with natural disaster reduction. In 1995,
the Department initiated a strategic planning process which will
be followed by a management study to identify the core resources
required by the Department to discharge its mandate, as well as
ways and means to enhance its effectiveness.
The Department of Humanitarian Affairs has steadily progressed
in achieving greater effectiveness. One major impediment, however,
is the funding pattern it inherited at its inception. Only a
third of the staff of the Department are funded from the regular
budget and since the beginning efforts have been made to establish
more regular-budget posts. Efforts to elaborate a financial strategy
to put the funding of the Department on a viable and sustainable
basis will continue.
2.3.2 Inter-Agency Standing Committee. The Inter-Agency
Standing Committee is a unique forum in that its membership brings
together the United Nations organizations directly involved in
humanitarian response activities and also extends participation
beyond the United Nations to include NGOs and other international
organizations. The Committee therefore has the potential to
provide collective leadership and to articulate principles and
policy on strategic issues geared to enhancing the effectiveness
of humanitarian operations.
In 1994, the Inter-Agency Standing Committee agreed on a set of
guidelines relating to the humanitarian mandate and to the appointment
of and terms of reference for humanitarian coordinators. The
Committee also designated the Emergency Relief Coordinator as
the reference point for matters concerning internally displaced
persons and established a task force to develop recommendations
regarding them. In 1995, the Committee will continue to examine
policies and general implications with respect to the humanitarian
impact of sanctions, de-mining and internally displaced persons.
It will also examine and adopt an inter-agency approach to the
utilization of military and civil defense assets for humanitarian
assistance and pursue increased operational coordination and cooperation
in emergency telecommunications.
Members of the Inter-Agency Standing Committee recognize the need
for it to focus on key policy issues which require discussion
and action at the executive level. The working group of the Committee
is designed to address operational issues and to manage the work
of task forces established to address specific topics. The adoption
by the Committee in 1994 of a set of action-oriented procedures
should facilitate the tasks of the working group in discharging
its supportive and managerial functions. The full potential of
the Committee has yet to be realized. This will require the collective
commitment of all its members and the leadership of the Department
of Humanitarian Affairs to make it a reality.
2.3.3 Central Emergency Revolving Fund. The usefulness
of the Central Emergency Revolving Fund is facilitating a timely
response to emergencies is well-recognized by the United Nations
operational organizations. The Fund has served as a predominant
source of funding for United Nations organizations in the critical
initial phase of emergencies to supplement their own emergency
funding capacity. Despite these very encouraging results, however,
the level of resources of the Fund and certain constraints in
its utilization need to be addressed to ensure its continued effectiveness.
These concerns were acknowledged by the General Assembly in its
resolution 49/139A of 20 December 1994, where the Assembly noted
the need to increase the resources available in the Central Emergency
Revolving Fund and the need to ensure that the Fund is maintained
at an adequate level to respond to new emergencies at any time.
The Assembly invited potential donors to make additional contributions
to the Fund and, in that context, requested the Secretary-General
to explore the feasibility of seeking in-kind donations.
The Department of Humanitarian Affairs has undertaken extensive
consultations with its humanitarian partners and with both the
traditional and non-traditional donor community in order to increase
financial support for and broaden the donor base of the Central
Emergency Revolving Fund.
The Department of Humanitarian Affairs, in cooperation with its
United Nations humanitarian partners, has reviewed the implications
of in-kind contributions as a possible additional resource for
the Central Emergency Revolving Fund. The general consensus among
operational organizations is that in-kind contributions would
be neither practical nor consistent with the envisaged use and
revolving nature of the Fund. Concern was also expressed about
management and overhead costs associated with in-kind contributions.
Furthermore, certain humanitarian supplies, such as agricultural
seeds and medicines, must conform to strict technical specifications
of recipient organizations. Questions have been raised concerning
the mechanism for accounting and reimbursement of in-kind contributions,
in the light of the revolving nature of the Fund. It is generally
agreed, however, that in-kind contributions are useful in the
context of overall emergency response and therefore should be
encouraged as direct bilateral contributions to the organizations
concerned.
The need for timely replenishment of the Central Emergency Revolving
Fund cannot be overemphasized. Delayed reimbursements could have
a serious impact on the Fund's ability to meet requirements in
emergency situations. In efforts to ensure the timely recovery
of advances, the Department of Humanitarian Affairs has taken
steps to strengthen existing procedures, shortening the period
for reimbursement, encouraging partial repayment whenever possible
and drawing the attention of donors in consolidated appeals to
prior utilization of the Fund. Despite such initiatives, however,
a number of advances have remained outstanding for more than a
year owing to weak responses to certain consolidated appeals.
These include advances drawn by the World Food Programme (WFP)
for Tajikistan ($2,463,879), by the United Nations Centre for
Human Settlements (Habitat) for Lebanon ($3,306,724) and by the
International Organization for Migration (IOM) for Zaire ($350,153).
In such cases, measures were taken to restore the balance of the Central Emergency Fund, in accordance with the provisions of the guidelines 1/ governing its operation, paragraph 16 of which states, inter alia, that the Emergency Relief Coordinator may:
On occasion, United Nations organizations have requested Central
Emergency Revolving Fund resources for ongoing emergency programs
in order to avoid serious interruption or scaling down of much
needed humanitarian relief activities. While these demands go
beyond the envisaged scope of the Fund, the judicious use of the
Fund for such purposes has proposed to be necessary under exceptional
circumstances. It has, however, been pointed out that the Fund
was established primarily to ensure a timely response in the initial
phase of an emergency. The General Assembly may wish therefore
to authorize the use of the Fund, in compelling circumstances,
for meeting critical humanitarian requirements of protracted emergencies.
2.3.4 Support for in-country coordination. In recent years,
as the number of major complex emergencies has increased, so too
has the United Nations been increasingly called upon to play an
active coordination role in such circumstances. In the case of
Somalia, the Security Council, in its resolution 733 (1992) of
23 January 1992, requested the Secretary-General to appoint a
humanitarian coordinator. Subsequently, the size and complexity
of the crises in Angola and Mozambique led to similar appointments
by the Emergency Relief Coordinator on behalf of the Secretary-General
after consultations with the Inter-Agency Standing Committee.
The Inter-Agency Standing Committee has recognized that a more
systematic approach is needed for the selection and appointment
of humanitarian coordinators in special circumstances. This led
in 1994 to the approval by the Committee of specific terms of
reference for such coordinators, their desired profile and the
procedure for their appointment, as well as the creation of a
stand-by roster of qualified potential coordinators. The terms
of reference also apply to resident coordinators when they serve
as the coordinator for humanitarian assistance. These steps were
designed to ensure the provision in larger complex emergency situations
of coordinators who have the special experience and skills needed
for such work and for them to be able to focus their full attention
on the tasks involved.
While this mechanism is still relatively new, it is possible to
make some general observations on its use to date. The mechanism
is being used, as appropriate, in support of and as a complement
to the United Nations resident coordinator system. As at May
1995, a total of five humanitarian coordinators had been appointed;
in Afghanistan, Angola, Mozambique, Rwanda and Somalia. Thus,
for the majority of emergencies, United Nations in-country coordination
is undertaken by the United Nations resident coordinator, under
the direct supervision of the Emergency Relief Coordinator.
The humanitarian coordinator post is meant to be temporary, reflecting
the large scale and acuteness of the emergency in question.
As the relief phase of the complex emergency recedes and the focus
of humanitarian efforts shifts towards rehabilitation and recovery,
the remaining functions of the humanitarian coordinator are phased
over to the traditional United Nations coordination mechanisms.
For conflict situations, one important indicator for the need
for such a transition has been the creation and initial implementation
of a formal peace process.
Thus, for example, in Somalia the humanitarian coordinator is
now also the same person as the United Nations resident coordinator
and United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) resident representative.
In Mozambique, the post of humanitarian coordinator has been
phased out, and the United Nations resident coordinator also serves
as the coordinator for humanitarian assistance.
Humanitarian coordinators work closely with national Governments
regarding humanitarian assistance matters. While in exceptional
cases such national Governments may not exist, such as Somalia
or in the initial period of the Rwanda crisis in 1994, this remains
the exception. Humanitarian coordinators like resident coordinators,
are committed to supporting the capacity of Governments to take
responsibility for their countries' own recovery. In Rwanda,
the humanitarian coordinator has set up an integrated structure
with the Ministry of Rehabilitation. This structure, staffed
by United Nations, NGO and government officials, is responsible
for ensuring the daily coordination of relief activities as well
as encouraging recovery programmes.
Lastly, the process of designating humanitarian coordinators has
allowed the Emergency Relief Coordinator to tap effectively the
broader pool of talent among the various United Nations organizations.
Thus, humanitarian coordinators have been appointed from among
the staff of UNDP, UNHCR, WFP, UNICEF and the Department of Humanitarian
Affairs.
The complexity of recent crises has highlighted the need to initiate
or implement key coordination and planning actions at the very
onset of a complex emergency. The United Nations resident coordinator
is tasked with the immediate response to an emergency, but the
scope or complexity of emergency activities may necessitate the
strengthening of in-country coordination capacity. In the light
of past experience, most United Nations operational organizations
have tried to build up their rapid response capacity in their
appropriate sectoral area in order to facilitate the emergency
response.
The Department of Humanitarian Affairs has developed rapid response
facilities for both natural and man-made disasters which aim to
support the immediate in-country emergency coordination efforts
of national authorities and the United Nations resident representative
as they confront the demands of emergency response.
United Nations disaster assessment and coordination teams were
created specifically for natural disasters. These teams consist
of emergency management experts who can be deployed within hours
of a disaster to work with local authorities. The teams aim to
facilitate a coordinated and effective response to natural and
environmental disasters. They can assist local authorities with
coordination, provide for immediate assessment of damage and humanitarian
relief needs, facilitate access by national Governments to international
stand-by resources and promote exchange of know-how and techniques.
The Department of Humanitarian Affairs is strengthening regional
and national capacities to manage disaster response by increasing
the number of countries participating in the system of disaster
assessment and coordination teams. It has also established a
Latin American team staffed by local personnel familiar with local
conditions. Steps were also taken in 1994 to reinforce the readiness
of such teams through training and increasing the number of team
members available. Missions by such teams in 1994 assisted in
the assessment and coordination of appropriate relief response
following torrential rainstorms in China, floods in Egypt and
Djibouti, tropical storms in Haiti and in preparation for a cyclone
in Bangladesh.
The Department of Humanitarian Affairs also continues work with
the International Search and Rescue Advisory Group, which was
initiated to benefit from experience in dealing with major disasters
involving collapsed structures. Today, the Advisory Group, through
its International Steering Group, regional groups and working
groups, addresses a wide range of international cooperation issues
in the mobilization, dispatch and coordination of international
relief resource in sudden-onset disasters.
With respect to complex or man-made emergencies, the Department
of Humanitarian Affairs has established a Rapid Response Unit
to deploy experienced personnel to work with the United Nations
resident coordinator or the humanitarian coordinator so as to
ensure immediate coordination and to build systematic support
for coordination activities as the emergency evolves. The Department
has deployed its rapid response capacity repeatedly. In Kigali
in April 1994, the advance humanitarian team, staffed with Department
of Humanitarian Affairs and United Nations organization representatives
re-established a United Nations humanitarian presence during a
very difficult period and was able to lay the groundwork for the
expansion of humanitarian activities as the situation permitted.
In Haiti, a combined Department of Humanitarian Affairs/UNDP
team was deployed to support the United Nations coordinator for
humanitarian assistance in the immediate aftermath of United Nations
action in September 1994. The team focused on providing increased
information services, liaising with NGOs and [establishing] bilateral/United
Nations Mission [and] Haiti military forces [cooperation in] and
preparing the humanitarian strategy [for] the consolidated appeal
for Haiti. During the crisis in Chechnya, [the] Russian Federation
[and] the Department worked closely with UNHCR, focusing on facilitating
the establishment of operating procedures and assisting in the
start-up of humanitarian assistance deliveries by WFP and UNICEF.
In order to ensure the provision of immediate and effective support
for in-country coordination, the Department of Humanitarian Affairs
has expanded its cooperative arrangements with the Norwegian and
Danish Refugee Councils and with the Swedish Rescue Services Agency
to utilize their capacities on a stand-by basis for supporting
field coordination in complex emergencies.
2.3.5 Consolidated appeals process. In 1994, 14 consolidated
inter-agency humanitarian assistance appeals were launched, reflecting
the needs of 15 countries and covering a population of 39.5 million.
Of the $2.76 billion requested, $2.13 billion was pledged to
the organizations participating in the appeals. Although at the
aggregate level contributions equaled 77 per cent of requirements,
the rate of response varied from 14.8 per cent for the appeal
for Yemen to 105 per cent for the appeal for the former Yugoslavia.
Although the number of appeals declines from 21 in 1993 to 14
in 1994, the average required amount for an appeal increased by
approximately 35 per cent. Though an average of 77 per cent is
encouraging, additional funding is sorely needed for many critical
emergency situations.
The consolidated appeals process was envisaged as a mechanism
to promote integrated needs assessments and greater prioritization
and to help to mobilize financial support for humanitarian programmes.
In order to set priorities among the funds requested in appeals,
the Department of Humanitarian Affairs seeks consensus from the
individual organizations on the priorities for emergencies in
recognition that each organizations on the priorities for emergencies
in recognition that each organization can best evaluate the urgency
of their activities. In many cases, the process has proved useful
in presenting donors with a balanced view of humanitarian needs
and funding requirements. In 1995, appeals for NGO projects were
included in a number of appeals, a development which strengthens
coordination and complementarity between United Nations and NGO
programmes. Given the particular status of the International
Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and the International Federation
of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC), their programmes
are not integrated into consolidated appeal documents, although
ICRC and IFRC data may appear in the annex of relevant documents.
Unfortunately, the quality of consolidated appeals continues to
vary. One important factor is the coordination and support that
exists in the field. Poor in-country cooperation may result in
the perception that the consolidated appeals process is a burden
rather than an opportunity. In such situations, the appeal does
little more than present unprioritized programmes of the organizations.
Where effective field-level cooperation does exist, the development
of a consolidated appeal reflects joint programming.
Experience has also shown that highly integrated appeals do not
necessarily guarantee good donor response. In ongoing emergencies
such as in Iraq, improved coordination on the ground may contribute
to an improved appeal that may nevertheless receive little funding
because of lack of political or media interest. Despite a deteriorating
humanitarian situation, the 1994 appeal for Afghanistan received
a little over 35 per cent funding, whereas the 194 appeal for
the countries of the former Yugoslavia received nearly 106 per
cent. The funding for Rwanda was barely 40 per cent in 1993.
After the mass exodus of July 1994 drew world-wide attention,
the new appeal raised almost 96 per cent of the funds requested.
In addition, appeals with a high degree of geographical or sectoral
complementarity are nevertheless funded in a selective manner;
there is a tendency to provide strong support only for certain
life-saving interventions and to particular United Nations organizations.
For example, within the 1994 appeals for Angola, Burundi and
Tajikistan (1993-1994), responses to the food components were
at least 100 per cent for each appeal. This was in stark contrast
to funding provided to the non-food sectors, which was barely
52 per cent for Angola, 40 per cent for Tajikistan and 21 per
cent for Burundi. Likewise, there are dramatic variations in
response to different United Nations organizations. In the case
of the 1993 Somalia appeal, UNHCR received 78 per cent of requested
funds, compared to an average of 24 per cent for other organizations.
However, this uneven response is due, in part, to the effectiveness
of each organization's own fund-raising efforts and its track
record in emergency situations. A coherent response to an emergency
requires the availability of funding for a balanced response to
vital sectors and activities. Additional funding is therefore
needed for relatively neglected yet critical relief activities
such as health, agriculture, water and sanitation, as well as
for immediate rehabilitation and recovery activities.
As a result of growing resource requirements and intensifying
competition for scarce funds, some donors are increasingly providing
earmarked contributions. A balance must be found between the
donors' need for accountability in the utilization of funds and
the organizations' need for flexibility so as to enable them to
respond rapidly.
In an attempt to broaden the donor base for consolidated appeals,
consideration is being given to coordinated effort among organizations
to approach new donors to increase their familiarity with the
multilateral humanitarian system. Given that success in mobilizing
resources for emergencies is often linked to media coverage, the
Inter-Agency Standing Committee is examining ways in which the
humanitarian organizations might collectively (through pooling
the efforts of media/public relations officers of the organizations
concerned) keep the focus on both high profile and less visible,
protracted emergencies.
When an emergency first occurs and a first-time consolidated appeal
is necessary, the challenge for the Department of Humanitarian
Affairs is to foster an integrated appeals process without unduly
delaying the response of individual organizations. Flash appeals
have been issued, for instance in Rwanda and Chechnya, Russian
Federation, to facilitate a timely appeal; these appeals were
subsequently followed by a more thorough consolidated appeal.
The Department recognizes the need to increase the speed with
which consolidated appeals are processed and issued and to maximize
the inter-agency collaborative planning aspects of flash appeals,
including agreements regarding division of responsibility.
2.3.6 Information sharing. Exchange of timely, relevant
and reliable information is an essential tool for assessing an
emergency situation and for coordinating input designed to prevent
it, reduce its impact, or respond to it. Communication technology
available today provides an opportunity for humanitarian actors
to share information more efficiently and effectively than ever
before. While there is informal exchange in order to facilitate
consistency in the assessment of changing situations, determination
of priorities and progress towards objectives.
In cooperation with interested Governments, United Nations organizations,
and NGOs, the Department of Humanitarian Affairs is presently
establishing an international information sharing system known
as "ReliefNet". ReliefNet's primary objective is to
make available emergency information that will be of operation
use for emergency actors. A secondary objective is to devise
an information system that will be available globally, irrespective
of the information technology available in a particular location.
The realization of these objectives is critically dependent on
the sharing of information among humanitarian partners.
At the same time, humanitarian organizations have also come to
realize that, in order to respond to crises of the magnitude seen
in the recent past, they must work closely with and rely on the
expertise of other organizations, NGOs and interested Governments
to augment their own capacity. In this context, it is also important
that these organizations should be able to draw on available stand-by
capacity available both within and outside interested Governments,
including the possible use of military and civilian assets.
More importantly, it has increasingly been recognized that indigenous
capacities to cope must be strengthened and fully utilized since
the affected communities and authorities are ultimately responsible
for ensuring that the needs of victims are met. This approach
is particularly important for ensuring the timely and effective
transition from relief to recovery and rehabilitation, for which
the people of the country concerned must assume primary responsibility.
It would therefore be appropriate in reviewing the capacity of
the United Nations system to take into account the need for international
humanitarian organizations to support the strengthening of national
capacities. Such a review should facilitate efforts by Member
States to address possible constraints, gaps and imbalances in
the system, which has evolved rapidly in an ad hoc manner in recent
years.
2.4.1 Operational capacity. United Nations organizations
have adapted their operational capacity to the growing demands
either through reorganization to give more focus to emergency
response or through the development of new management, staffing
and administrative structures. It is clear that flexibility and
adequate delegation of authority are two of the key elements of
a rapid response.
2.4.1.1 Emergency management structures. United
Nations organizations differ considerably in terms of management
structure, delegation of authority, human resources, degree of
centralization and organization of their emergency and development
capacities. Such variation gives rise to different strengths
in terms of flexibility, rapidity of response, accountability
and integration of rehabilitation and recovery activities. While
decentralization and delegation of authority may increase flexibility
and speed of response, as well as allow organizations to work
closely with local communities, concerns about accountability
and transparency may increase.
The fast breaking nature of most natural and many complex crises
necessitates access to people with the right profile and the ability
to deploy them at short notice. High turnover of staff is characteristic
of many relief organizations. This high turnover, due to the
stressful nature of the work and the short-term, temporary nature
of most employment contracts, means that valuable experience and
lessons are lost to the employing organization. Rapid staff turnover
sometimes results in personnel ill-prepared to perform the role
required of them. Whether staff are trained or inexperienced,
their commitment to humanitarian goals is generally very strong.
Some imbalances still need to be addressed in order to give the
overall system the possibility to adjust to the fast-changing
humanitarian environment. A brief summary of the crisis management
structures of United Nations organizations is provided.
UNHCR has established additional mechanisms during the past three
years to increase the efficiency of its emergency response, including
rapid deployment teams and stand-by arrangements with external
partners to increase its staffing and programme delivery capacity.
In addition, UNHCR has considerable structural flexibility to
respond to emergencies. UNHCR country representatives are authorized
to reallocate up to 15 per cent of their budget between sectors
without reverting to headquarters. In cases of sudden large population
movements, a UNHCR representative can request an allocation from
the UNHCR Emergency Fund an authority to disburse funds under
an emergency letter of instruction. Upon issuance of such a letter,
the representative may initiate a letter of intent with an implementing
partner to incur expenditures, pending signature of a more formal
agreement.
WFP's operations rely heavily on its network of field offices,
which implement relief programmes jointly with recipient Governments,
local authorities and NGOs and provide first assessments of relief
requirements. Until recently, WFP relied upon its development
personnel to deal with emergencies as well. Now, however, the
growth of relief operations world wide has necessitated the deployment
of dedicated emergency personnel to the field as well as to headquarters.
The sudden increase in emergency requirements has given rise
to short-term contracts, substantial local recruitment of both
expatriate and local staff and [an] additional need for volunteers,
both United Nations and others. WFP's emergency training capacity
has been enhanced as a result.
WFP has created a rapid response facility with staff ready for
travel at a moment's notice and the immediate availability of
funds to set up operations, including communications, offices
and other support services. Funding for the rapid response team
has now been incorporated into the regular WFP support budget.
In addition, WFP has delegated considerable authority to the
country offices, both in terms of cash allocations for local food
purchases and setting up of response structures.
The formalities for accessing resources are minimal; requests
for food and funds can be submitted through WFP country offices
or directly to headquarters, are processed immediately and are
subject to either local assessment or assessment with headquarters
participation, often on joint inter-agency missions.
UNICEF is a highly decentralized organization with a ration of
staffing between headquarters and the field of 20 to 80. Over
the past two years, UNICEF has strengthened its emergency management
structures in New York and Geneva, and, through the use of short-term
staff, in regional offices in Africa. UNICEF's strong field presence,
including external relations, networks and counterpart mechanisms
in most countries, ensures a linkage between preparation, response
and post-emergency activities and the ability to mobilize local
resources quickly.
UNICEF's emergency operations have been reviewed to improve its
emergency responsiveness. Within its headquarters, a weekly high-level
task force reviews all ongoing emergencies and reports directly
to the Deputy Executive Director. The rapid response team is
the heart of UNICEF's rapid response capacity, with five or six
staff members per team, participating on a voluntary basis, all
selected for their emergency skills and experience. The specific
objectives of the rapid response teams are to support existing
UNICEF presence, set up operations (programme, supply, communication,
security and logistics systems); undertake a rapid assessment
of the situation of women and children; undertake the initial
distribution of assistance; establish initial contacts with the
Government and prepare a plan of action.
UNDP's emergency capacity is structured around three areas: its
national development programmes in prevention and mitigation,
support to coordination of relief activities and support to national
efforts for recovery and rehabilitation. The Emergency Response
Division is the focal point for emergency-related policy, funding
and training matters as well as in-house and external coordination.
Regional bureau, each with an emergency focal point, provide
operations guidance and support to country offices. The country
offices have considerable programme, administrative and financial
authority to react to a budding crisis. In the case of a declared
emergency, there are simplified procedures for the establishment
of local funds, recruitment and procurement. UNDP has a roster
of experienced staff available on short notice and 15 budgeted
posts reserved for strengthening offices in emergency affected
countries.
The World Health Organization (WHO) has a three-tiered management
structure. Its headquarters, including a Division of Emergency
and Humanitarian Action, is responsible for overall policies,
which are carried out at the regional level by regional offices
in collaboration with WHO country representatives acting at the
country level. Country offices have only limited authority and
latitude to decide on major administrative and financial actions.
WHO is reviewing its procedures with a view to augmenting the
operational latitude and responsibilities of its representatives,
as has already been done in the African region, where WHO representatives
can reprogramme regular country resources for funding emergency
response activities with the agreement of the Government.
WHO country offices are also being strengthened with additional
international and national staff. In addition, WHO is taking
the steps necessary to permit a rapid mobilization of its technical
staff in support of its country representatives. WHO is establishing
a system of emergency health assessment teams and emergency health
coordinators, which will be on stand-by within the WHO structure.
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
has a Global Information and Early Warning System for Food and
Agriculture (GIEWS), which is responsible for the assessment of
food needs, including food-aid requirements in emergency situations.
The Office for Special Relief Operations is in charge of assessing
immediate emergency needs and the mobilization, coordination,
transport and distribution of emergency relief assistance. The
number of Special Relief Operations personnel at headquarters
is limited, as ample use is made of external consultants and of
FAO's resources in technical expertise. The Office also receives
crucial support from FAO representatives in the field.
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) has an Emergency Operations Unit, which coordinates the
agency's work in the early stages of an emergency. Focal points
within the UNESCO secretariat are designated for specific operations.
both the Unit and the focal points report directly to the Director-General
or the Assistant Director-General for the Directorate. Simplified
administrative and financial procedures for emergency situations
have also been elaborated.
2.4.1.2 Technical requirements and bilateral stand-by
capacity. A key element for a successful response to an emergency,
whether natural or man-made, is access to technical support, special
skills and the minimum requirements to initiate the assessment
of and response to emergency needs. United Nations organizations
have developed the full gamut of rapid deployment teams, field
kits, stand-by arrangements with donor Governments and stockpiles
of equipment and relief supplies.
Essential requirements for a rapid response to a crisis include
logistics, telecommunications, office equipment and living arrangements.
The personnel and equipment necessary to set up field operations
must be established quickly and in most cases with little reliance
on local procurement or support. To meet the needs of field personnel,
some organization[s] have developed field kits with a comprehensive
range of survival items.
In collaboration with the Department of Humanitarian Affairs at
the warehouse located at Pisa, Italy, WHO stockpiles essential
logistics and communication equipment for quick delivery and use
by countries affected by emergencies. WFP has similar strategic
stocks of equipment at Nairobi. Along with its well-known ready-to-use
medical kits, UNICEF has developed and assembled other field-support-oriented
ready-to-use kits and has communication and security equipment
for use in most emergency situations.
While the vast majority of humanitarian assistance is delivered
by existing capacities, organizations cannot maintain a level
of readiness on the scale required to guarantee rapid mobilization
of personnel and equipment to meet extraordinary crises. Various
donor Governments have offered stand-by facilities with staff,
turnkey services and equipment available at short notice. Most
organizations are improving the speed with which they can assemble
and deploy a team at short notice by resorting to these bilateral
arrangements with Governments.
A recent innovative means of improving operational capacity is
the UNHCR concept of the "service package": self-contained
facilities and services provided by donor Governments when traditional
emergency response mechanisms are insufficient. This "service
package" was used in Rwanda and is in the process of being
developed and refined in order to ensure that the packages are
truly self-supporting and require minimum supervision/coordination.
The military and civil defense assets of many Member States are
well situated to provide support to a full range of emergency
services in natural disasters in the fields of, inter alia,
communications, transport, medical services and search and rescue
activities. In addition to provision of support for emergency
field operations, defense assets could carry out critical infrastructure
construction and repairs. Their structures are intended to respond
rapidly in a self-contained and highly mobile fashion. The military
and civil defense assets project of the Department of Humanitarian
Affairs is similarly aimed at improving the management of military
assets in natural and technological emergencies. In the framework
of this project, a network of networks among relevant international
and regional institutions was launched to enhance cooperation.
It includes close cooperation with the Partner for Peace programme,
as well as the establishment of a dedicated database on national
military and civil defense capabilities.
In 1994, military assets continued to play a vital role in the
UNHCR airlift to Sarajevo and were mobilized on a large scale
in response to the massive exodus of Rwandans to eastern Zaire.
Military and civil defense expertise was integrated into field
missions to the Republic of Moldova and Algeria in connection
with floods in those countries. In the light of the potential
of military and civil defense assets, an Inter-Agency Standing
Committee task force is developing a common framework for their
use when appropriate in support of all types of humanitarian operations.
WFP's capacity to move large quantities quickly by sea, air and
land is renowned and many relief organizations, from both within
and outside the United Nations system call upon WFP to assist.
While the cost is extremely competitive, the transport costs
are relatively high in contrast to the costs of the basic commodities,
such as grains, that are shipped. WFP has often brought in outside
truck fleets in order to augment the transport capacity of hosting
countries.
WHO is developing stand-by arrangements to complement its staffing
resources with the medical emergency response units of a number
of countries, as well as with schools of public health and other
specialized centers. In Rwanda, UNICEF reached an agreement with
the American Public Health Association, Center for Disease Control.
Building on the Rwanda experience, UNICEF has commenced negotiations
with Governments and institutions to develop additional stand-by
response facilities to meet needs in health, nutrition, water
and sanitation, logistics, security, unaccompanied children, education,
social mobilization and publicity.
UNICEF is developing basic assistance kits to support emergency
response in the areas identified above. In addition, UNICEF has
developed a teacher emergency package, comprising a kit of materials
of teaching basic literacy and numeracy accompanied by a training
programme for implementation based on a "train the trainer"
approach for emergency situations.
An additional important component of stand-by capacity for rapid
response to both natural and man-made emergencies is the existing
system of stockpiles of emergency supplies run by the United Nations,
Governments and NGOs. These stockpiles provide a stand-by source
for relief supplies that can be flown to the site of an emergency
within hours of a disaster declaration.
Many organizations have stockpiles of pertinent assistance items.
UNICEF has a well-established stockpile facility at Copenhagen
with the capacity to respond globally at competitive prices.
WFP and WHO have joined the Department of Humanitarian Affairs
in stockpiling food and medical supplies in a warehouse at Pisa,
Italy. This warehouse aims to fill gaps which cannot be met by
United Nations organizations or donor nations.
In order to improve the usefulness of the various stockpiles,
the Department of Humanitarian Affairs has established a register
of emergency stockpiles, which includes both specifications and
available quantities and provides easily accessible information
as to the potential for immediate shipment of relief consignments
to affected areas. The register is an important tool to increase
awareness of existing capacities among the humanitarian community
and recipient countries. The Department is also working with
the World Customs Organization on a model agreement between the
United Nations and a Member State, which would expedite the movement
of humanitarian consignments and disaster relief teams in the
event of an emergency.
In the past, the best efforts of humanitarian organizations to
deploy supporting telecommunications equipment such as radios
and satellite communications have sometimes been delayed at national
borders owing to a lack of prior customs clearance. In October
1994, the Plenipotentiary Conference of the International Telecommunication
Union (ITU) adopted Resolution 36, in which Member States were
urged to take all practical steps for facilitating the rapid deployment
and effective use of telecommunication equipment for disaster
mitigation and for disaster relief operations by reducing and,
where possible, removing regulatory barriers and strengthening
transborder cooperation between States. It is hoped that steps
will be taken by the Economic and Social Council in 1995 to move
this process forward. It is recommended that an open-ended ad
hoc intergovernmental working group of experts be established
by the Council to examine proposals and draft a basic text for
consideration and adoption as a convention on emergency telecommunications.
2.4.1.3 Cooperative arrangements. Humanitarian
response to many emergencies is a multifaceted operation calling
upon the capacity of numerous organizations, both indigenous and
international. Within the existing system, no single organization
can possibly meet all the needs of a suffering population. Several
United Nations humanitarian organizations have moved to optimize
the collective response through regularizing coordination with
other humanitarian organizations within the United Nations and
with NGOs, as well as the above-mentioned bilateral arrangements.
2.4.1.3.1 Memoranda of understanding among United Nations organizations.
Most of the United Nations humanitarian organizations have
recognized the importance of relying on one another's comparative
advantages and special skills. Memoranda of understanding have
been signed between many United Nations organizations to provide
guidance to inter-agency collaboration. Some of these memoranda
extend beyond a specific emergency; almost all refugee food requirements
are channeled through WFP under the WFP/UNHCR, are country-level
agreements that spell out collaborative arrangements between the
organizations in order to facilitate seamless programme support
to affected populations. UNICEF is actively seeking to develop
memoranda of understanding with WFP, UNHCR and WHO.
In addition, some inter-agency relationships, like the one between
UNHCR and UNICEF, are based on mostly field-oriented letters of
understanding and other ad hoc arrangements. FAO and WFP collaborate
in food assessments and in early warning based upon their long-standing
collaboration.
Longer-term arrangements between United Nations organizations
have also been developed. The increase in industrial accidents,
the magnitude and potential consequences of which demand an international
emergency response, has led to a joint Environment Unit between
the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the Department
of Humanitarian Affairs. UNEP retains substantive responsibility
for dealing with environmental aspects of emergencies, including
industrial accidents, while the Department of Humanitarian Affairs
assures operational coordination.
Organizations of the system have also increased cooperation with
the United Nations Volunteers Programme in meeting some of their
staffing requirements in the fields.
2.4.1.3.2 Collaboration between United Nations organizations
and NGOs. The humanitarian community could not function without
local and international NGOs. Their enormous contribution goes
beyond that of implementing partners. Use of indigenous NGOs
should be encouraged to mobilize local resources and to ensure
that there is a proper transition from relief to rehabilitation
and recovery.
NGOs have emerged as mainstream partners in emergencies. UNHCR
and UNICEF have long experience in working closely with NGOs in
emergency settings. To strengthen collaboration, both organizations
have developed guidelines to enhance their partnership with NGOs.
In addition, UNICEF has been pursuing initiatives to enhance
relationships with NGOs in the field by concluding memoranda of
understanding, and to strengthen capacity-building and other links
with indigenous NGOs. WFP and FAO systematically engage NGOs
as implementing partners to assist in the distribution and monitoring
of humanitarian assistance because of their relevant experience
and presence in the field.
WHO has regularly worked with NGOs in many areas of the world.
WHO is presently consulting with major medical NGOs to define
how such collaboration can be further developed. UNESCO has established
cooperation with national and international bodies such as the
Norwegian Refugee Council and the Jesuit Refugee Service to provide
short-term staff for emergencies. UNICEF presently relies on
stand-by/turnkey arrangements with Swedrelief and the Norwegian
Refugee Council for training in emergency preparedness and staff
security.
2.4.2 Financial capacity. In 1994, United Nations organizations
had access to almost $3 billion for humanitarian assistance.
Adding to that figure the amount spent by the rest of the humanitarian
community (non-United Nations partners, NGOs, IFRC, ICRC and aid
agencies of major donors having an operational capacity), substantially
more than $5 billion was spent in 1994 for programmes of humanitarian
assistance.
The rising number of complex crises has placed a great burden
on the capability of the United Nations system to respond to emergencies.
In some organizations, Member States responded by providing more
financial flexibility and increasing access to emergency funds.
These efforts are laudable and must be pursued, and additional
funds and flexibility must be provided to enable the United Nations
system as a whole to take a multifaceted approach to tackle the
complexity of the consequences of crises, as well as their root
causes.
In UNHCR, within the general programs budget approved annually
by the Executive Committee, there are three possibilities for
funds to be used in response to new humanitarian situations.
As a result of flexibility provided by the Executive Committee,
these budgetary arrangements, which are not earmarked to regions
or commodities, have been created or increased over the past few
years.
These budget allocations ensure significant resources and flexibility
to allow an immediate response to crises. The Emergency Fund
now stands at $25 million, from which up to $8 million can be
allocated to any one emergency during the year. If this fund
is depleted, UNHCR can draw temporarily up to $8 million from
its Working Capital and Guaranteed Fund, established at $50 million.
The programme reserve, currently set at 10 per cent of annual
programmed activities (or some $34 million in 1995) can also be
used to respond to needs resulting from new influxes of refugees
within existing case-loads. Finally, UNHCR is authorized to use
a general allocation for voluntary repatriation, currently set
at $20 million, to promote or initiate voluntary repatriation
activities whenever the possibility arises.
WFP relief for its funding for relief operations principally on
the International Emergency Food Reserve, which has an annual
target of 500,000 tons. Although this target has invariably been
exceeded, it remains insufficient to respond to all emergency
situations. The second source of funding, a subset of the regular
WFP budget, is for protracted refugee and displaced persons relief
operations. This mechanism depends on voluntary pledging for
specific operations and provides no guarantee of continuity in
the long term.
The third source of funding is the immediate response account,
which has an annual target of $30 million to allow for early interventions
when an emergency occurs. This account has never been fully funded
and therefore tends to get exhausted early in the year. An additional
source of funding for relief operations is bilateral pledges,
either in response to WFP requests for specific emergency operations
or as a result of donors' decisions to channel their bilateral
contribution through WFP. This funding has been extremely useful
in resolving many acute emergency requirements, such as road repairs
and airlifts, and to finance operations not falling into the classic
group of natural and man-made emergencies. However, pledges are
often for specific emergencies and thus restrict WFP action considerably.
Although contributions to the protracted relief operations are
more secure, some of them are also specifically directed and do
not permit reallocation by WFP to the most deserving operations
when shortages occur. WFP can borrow from development resources,
both financially and for food, which allows for rapid access to
essential supplies of food. However, such loans are constrained
by the reduction in development-oriented resource flows; furthermore
some recent emergency operations are situated in areas where little
development activity takes place. In order to ensure the availability
of cash for management of emergency operations, WFP emergency
budgets now include delivery and administration costs.
UNICEF mobilizes resources for emergency activities through diversion
of funding already allocated to the country, reprogramming, the
Emergency Programme Fund, supplementary funds received against
appeals and the Central Emergency Revolving Fund. Diversion of
funds already available to the country is often the first recourse.
For diversions up to $50,000 Government consent is sought, although
UNICEF headquarters approval is not necessary. Reprogramming involves
the reallocation of more than $50,000 of country programme resources
previously earmarked for development programmes. For reprogramming
and diversion, if there are no recognized authorities with which
to negotiate, the representative has the discretion to reallocate
or divert funds as long as there is headquarters approval.
UNICEF has a biannual Emergency Programme Fund of $30 million.
Resources from the Fund are used to provide the cash necessary
for the initial response in complex emergencies in order to meet
interim needs in expectation of the launching of a consolidated
inter-agency appeal or pending receipt of donor contributions
against an appeal. Occasionally, resources from the Fund will
be used to initiate action at the initial stage of an emergency
when there is no appeal and are thus allocated without the expectation
of being replenished.
UNDP emergency relief assistance is largely funded from special
programme resources, which are approved by the Executive Board
over a five-year planning cycle for the purpose of disaster mitigation.
All activities proposed for funding under special programme resources
must have been fully discussed at the country level with the United
Nations disaster management team. Requests for approval of special
programme resources funds for specific activities must be directed
to UNDP headquarters from country offices, except in selected
countries classified as highly vulnerable to sudden natural disasters,
where approval authority for emergency phase activities has been
delegated to the UNDP resident representative.
Two subcategories of special programme resources funds are available
to meet immediate humanitarian assistance requirements. The first
is for emergency phase activities, and usually contains an average
annual amount of $1 million for allocations to a maximum of $50,000
per disaster per country. These funds can be used for emergency-related
coordination, support services for deployment of relief supplies
and for direct emergency assistance (provided that the relief
supplies to be procured are not covered under the mandate of a
different United Nations organization and they are not to be used
for rehabilitation and/or reconstruction purposes).
The second subcategory, for refugees, displaced persons and returnees,
is funded at an average annual level of $1.4 million. Funds from
this category also have spending caps. A maximum of $50,000 per
situation is available for emergency assistance to internally
displaced persons to fill crucial gaps not met by other United
Nations system resources and for activities oriented to needs
assessment and project development pertaining to refugees and
returnees. Funds for the coordination of assistance to displaced
persons are limited to $100,000 per displacement situation.
WHO has an Emergency Revolving Fund of $900,000 in unearmarked
resources available for immediate emergency response for each
biennium. The Fund is divided into a $400,000 replenishable component
and a $500,000 allocation. WHO must rely on resources mobilized
through consolidated appeals or the limited amounts available
through regional offices for its response to urgent emergency
requirements.
Emergency projects undertaken by the Office for Special Relief
Operations of FAO are financed by its own technical cooperation
programme from contributions from governmental, non-governmental
and United Nations organizations. There is no flexibility in
the use of funds allocated by donors for specific activities.
FAO has recognized the need to establish an emergency revolving
fund to meet immediate requirements, including for teams to assess
the impact of a calamity on the agricultural sector and to formulate
interventions.
In 1993, UNESCO's General Conference approved $2.4 million for
addressing emergency needs in 1994 and 1995. There is an accelerated
procedure to process requests for emergency assistance. Such
requests must be addressed to UNESCO by the Government concerned.
The Director-General has also financed UNESCO emergency operations
with savings from the regular budget, that is, limited reallocations
of funds foreseen for a specific activity. Essentially, however,
UNESCO's emergency operations rely on extrabudgetary funding.
An Emergency Relief Fund has been established for voluntary contributions.
UNESCO does collect funds for countries emerging from emergency
situations. Significant funding is collected within this context
for activities within the Culture of Peace Programme and the unit
dealing with refugee education.
Given the recent increase in the number and complexity of emergencies
to which the United Nations system has been called upon to respond,
it is timely for Member States to review the capacity of the United
Nations humanitarian organizations. In doing so, Governments
may wish to take appropriate measures to strengthen the operational
and financial capacities of these organizations so that the system
as a whole can respond quickly, effectively and equitably to the
range of critical short-and medium-term needs of those affected
by disasters and emergencies.
Until recently, traditional wisdom argued that responsibility
for the convalescence of a society was transferred from humanitarian
actors to development partners in a linear progression along what
was called the "relief to development continuum." The
assumption was that such baton hand-overs could be accomplished
smoothly and that donor momentum or interest would remain constant
throughout the process. In fact, in many situations, success
by the international community in stabilizing the humanitarian
crisis is not accompanied by longer-term political stability.
Protracted political instability often results in a reduction
of international assistance, thus limiting resources available
to support a transition to recovery. The experiences of Rwanda,
Somalia and the Sudan, as well as concerns about the future of
such ongoing operations as those in Angola, reveal a fundamental
flaw in the traditional notion of a relief to development continuum.
Recent experiences have highlighted difficulties which have to
be addressed in dealing with recovery and transition. Such problems
include the following:
(a) A perceived scarcity of empowered local leadership able to
interact with the international community to take over and guide
the transition process. A classic example is Somalia, where only
limited numbers of local leaders who could assume the responsibility
for peacemaking, political accommodation and rehabilitation emerged;
(b) Frequent donor fatigue when a protracted conflict or emergency
seems to lead nowhere. After years of war and crisis, the situation
in the Sudan only occasionally grabs the international community's
attention;
(c) An absence of significant donor resources for the rehabilitation
and recovery phases. Most donor funds are earmarked for either
disaster assistance or long-term development. In Burundi and
Rwanda, opportunities for breaking the cycle of impunity and starting
on a path to reconciliation are being forfeited because of delays
in and lack of resources targeted to the judicial systems.
The goodwill associated with a successful international emergency
operation provides a window of opportunity upon which the international
community must capitalize. A community's goodwill and its willingness
to compromise among its own members and with others are often
lost if resources for recovery and follow-up support are not forthcoming
in a timely manner.
To begin to address these problems, the international community
should, at the very inception of an emergency, focus on the sustainability
of the impact of humanitarian assistance, especially through the
empowerment of local authorities and structures. Supporting local
structures in their efforts to guide the humanitarian endeavor
will greatly enhance the international community's ability to
address the essence of a crisis and to identify and support opportunities
for diffusing tensions. Continued support to representative local
structures beyond the emergency relief stage through the recovery
process has the potential to assist nascent and fragile peace
efforts to flourish.
To date, attempts by the United Nations system to bridge the recovery
funding gap have focused on a number of mechanisms, of which the
two most prominent are the consolidated appeal and round-table
discussions. Recognizing the protracted and complex nature of
many crises, UNDP has expanded the round table concept to assist
States in situations of protracted instability; a round table
was held for Rwanda. Round tables, in facilitating the interaction
between donors and the Governments concerned, are, by their very
nature, country specific, and require significant preparation.
In situations such as Somalia where government structures remain
to be established, round tables remain fairly complicated to organize.
The consolidated appeal has also been utilized in some instances
to address immediate recovery requirements. Such appeals aim
to address the totality of needs in an emergency situation and
provide sufficient time for the preparation of follow-up activities
by other partners. Recognizing the potential overlap between
the round-table mechanism and the consolidated appeals process,
the Department of Humanitarian Affairs and UNDP are currently
reviewing these mechanisms to ensure complementarity.
One critical constraint which organizations of the system face
in a period of transition is the availability of upfront resources
to address immediate recovery needs. In conflict situations where
peace has just been restored, such activities could be critical
to stabilizing and improving fragile situations. The window of
opportunity for such activities, however, is often limited and
should be fully utilized. Experience has shown that the response
of donors to longer-term rehabilitation requirements often takes
time. In the light of these circumstances, it is proposed that
a window of an additional $30 million be created in the Central
Emergency Revolving Fund to be used for quick action to support
immediate recovery and transition activities undertaken by organizations
of the United Nations system. This new facility is intended to
be a bridge between emergency relief operations and the beginning
of reconstruction and rehabilitation. The Department of Humanitarian
Affairs and UNDP, in consultation with other partners of the United
Nations system, will jointly work out modalities for the use for
this new facility.
Over the last 25 years, the damage caused by natural phenomena
to people and the productive infrastructure of developing countries
has steadily risen. Economic damage has more than tripled from
$40 billion in the 1960s to $140 billion in the 1980s. There
are strong indications that this trend will continue. Natural
disasters, like complex emergencies, absorb increasing amounts
of global resources and set back development agendas. Besides
human and economic losses, they also can destabilize the social
and political fabric.
Successful disaster preparedness and mitigation programmes can
save thousands of lives. In 1977, some 10,000 persons died when
a tropical cyclone hit the coast of Andhra Pradesh in India.
Thirteen years later, a storm of similar force struck the same
area, but less than 1,000 deaths were reported because 600,000
persons had been evacuated in the previous 2 days. Nations once
known for their devastating droughts have set up food security
arrangements that now almost totally protect them from the impact
of major droughts.
However, the challenge remains. The factors that make countries
vulnerable to disasters increase in dimension much faster than
the means of Governments to control them. The Governments concerned,
international development organizations and donors realize that
vulnerability to disasters has become a major obstacle to economic
and social development. It is estimated that the impact of natural
disasters is 20 times greater in poorer countries than in industrialized
settings. While many disaster-prone developing countries have
to contend with competing demands on their scarce resources, vulnerability
reduction programmes are considered as an important, integral
part of their development strategies.
2.6.1 Early warning capacity and action on such warnings.
Radar systems installed in countries bordering the Bay of
Bengal, rainfall monitoring stations in the Himalayas, the data-gathering
and evaluation mechanisms in the Sahel countries detecting the
development of drought situations, together with other early warning
systems, have undoubtedly saved many lives. New technologies,
particularly in data gathering and communication, have made possible
many advances in the predictability of potentially destructive
natural phenomena.
Although technological improvements have increased the capacity
of early warning systems, they have also, to a certain degree,
widened the gap between the alert message and the end receiver
in developing, disaster-prone countries. The discrepancy lies
in the often highly technical content of the warning itself and
the capacity of communities in disaster-prone areas to first of
all understand and secondly act upon it. This, obviously, is
particularly important in countries with different languages and
local dialects. The point to note, and one needing continuous
attention, is that early warning is not yet a disaster preparedness
measure in itself. It takes a functioning disaster preparedness
system at the national and local levels to translate early warning
signals into an understandable message for the end users at the
community level. An example of such a system is the cyclone preparedness
project in Bangladesh. The project draws on the services of more
than 20,000 volunteers in the country's cyclone exposed coastal
areas who, when the meteorological service gives that alarm over
pre-established communication lines, go with megaphones to villages
and ensure a prompt reaction. Here is an obvious area for disaster
mitigation work at the local level for the United Nations organizations
concerned in collaboration with Governments and grass-roots non-governmental
organizations.
The United Nations is currently reviewing existing natural disaster
early warning arrangements and a report will be presented in September
1995 to the General Assembly at its fiftieth session.
Within the United Nations system, there are various early warning
capacities focused by sector. To name but a few, FAO's GIEWS,
in association with WFP, has the overall responsibility for crop
monitoring and food-needs assessments, for the assessment of emergency
requirements, as well as for the rapid dissemination of its assessments.
The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) has the responsibility
and strong capacity for early warning information relating to
meteorological data. Outside the United Nations system, the Famine
Early Warning System (FEWS), sponsored by the United States of
America, and work on vulnerability assessment maps, a collaborative
effort of Save the Children UK, FEWS, FAO and WFP and funded by
both the European Union and the Government of the United States,
are mechanisms that contribute to a better understanding of the
development of complex and man-made emergencies.
As a coordinating body for humanitarian affairs, the Department
of Humanitarian Affairs has been involved in the development of
a mechanism which cuts across sectors for early warning information.
The Humanitarian Early Warning System (HEWS) is being developed
to provide up-to-date warnings of a country situation through
analysis of its database, drawing upon the various early warning
mechanisms of other United Nations organizations, as well as non-United
Nations information sources. HEWS completed its prototype in
January 1995 and has expanded its country coverage since then.
It will become operational very shortly. UNDP is developing
a risk analysis and vulnerability indicators programme to analyze
the risks arising from social, economic and political tensions.
In the case of complex crises, even with the presence of early
warning mechanisms, the international community may only be able
to mitigate the suffering. However, even this response requires
action that is often lacking as was the case in Somalia. The
Department of Humanitarian Affairs is looking at means of encouraging
action upon receipt of an early warning. A recent development
is joint, ad hoc consultations between the Departments of Humanitarian
Affairs, Peace-keeping Operations and Political Affairs to ensure
a common understanding and appreciation of the nature and potential
impact of looming crises. When appropriate, these meetings will
produce joint proposals for preventive measures for consideration
by the senior task force on United Nations Operations.
2.6.2 Training programmes. The scarcity of resources for
humanitarian assistance highlights the importance of investment
in human resources development, particularly at the local and
national levels.
The efforts of the United Nations to implement the concept of
disaster mitigation as a multisectoral and inter-ministerial discipline
rely heavily upon training. Disaster mitigation in the multisectoral
sense is of recent origin, and consequently requires intensive
awareness raising among government officials at all levels. Specialized
training activities are an excellent means to reach a large number
of officials concerned as well as representatives from the non-governmental
sector.
The Department of Humanitarian Affairs/UNDP disaster management
raining programme facilitates national capacity-building for all
phases of emergency management (prevention through reconstruction).
Fifty per cent of the participants in disaster management training
events are nationals of developing countries, and the training
programme has recently enlarged its target group to 70 emergency-prone
countries. In countries where national workshops for disaster
management training are conducted, UNDP may propose funding for
projects to strengthen national capacity for disaster prevention,
mitigation and management from its special programme resources
up to $250,000.
Specific sectoral emergency training programmes are the key to
sectorally appropriate emergency response, and most United Nations
humanitarian organizations have developed and refined such training
progammes for their staff. For instance, UNICEF has a well-developed
training programme for emergency preparedness and management,
including security and critical stress management. It has trained
over 300 staff members at all levels, as well as staff from other
United Nations organizations and NGOs. The disaster management
training programme, envisaged as a training programme for natural
disasters, draws upon these existing training capacities and adds
to them through its focus on coordination and team-building among
United Nations organizations, donors, NGOs and national Governments,
particularly in the field but also at headquarters. The training
programme is working to enhance the participation of and full
coordination among United Nations organizations. The programme
also aims to generate and disseminate new doctrine and concepts
and lessons learned from past emergencies.
On the basis of experience from disaster management training for
natural disasters, the Inter-Agency Standing Committee working
group has agreed that an inter-agency core group will be established
to pursue humanitarian training issues in the complex emergency
sphere, including development of linkages between humanitarian
training, human rights, peace-keeping and peacemaking.
2.6.3 Building national capacity for natural disaster management.
Building national capacity for natural disaster mitigation
and management takes the form of advisory services, group training,
seminars and workshops, fellowships, field projects and publications.
Numerous United Nations organizations, working within their mandate,
promote and assist countries to implement disaster reduction programmes
and develop institutional capabilities for disaster management.
These organizations provide further service to countries by making
international knowledge on disaster reduction experiences, concepts
and approaches accessible. For example, UNESCO promotes research
on the causes of hazards and on technical and engineering means
to mitigate their effects, and works to further public awareness
through education, information and communication. Recently, in
response to the risks from volcanoes for the very large local
and refugee population in eastern Zaire, UNHCR, UNICEF and WHO
as well as ICRC and IFRC delegate sand national officials, held
a series of meetings coordinated by the Department of Humanitarian
Affairs to contribute the perspective and knowledge of their organizations
for disaster reduction.
The Department of Humanitarian Affairs is often an orchestrator
and promote of disaster-reduction efforts. It aims to reduce
human suffering and damage and destruction from natural disaster
through activities that address the preventive aspects of humanitarian
assistance and create awareness and opportunities for disaster
reduction in a development context. For instance, the Department
worked in close collaboration with UNDP, UNICEF, FAO, WMO, ITU
and Habitat to hold subregional workshops in Africa to promote
and plan activities for disaster reduction.
In its facilitation role, the activities of the Department of
Humanitarian Affairs include servicing of International Decade
for Natural Disaster Reduction bodies, international liaison,
information dissemination and the development of new initiatives
to contribute to the development of national and regional disaster-reduction
capabilities. This approach is complemented by other technical
support activities, including advisory services, group training,
seminars and workshops, fellowships and field projects. A full
report on the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction
will be before the General Assembly at its fiftieth session and
the Economic and Social Council at its substantive session of
1995.
Disaster reduction efforts of the Department of Humanitarian Affairs
have traditionally been carried out in liaison with national disaster
management authorities. While it remains important to facilitate
and support adequate attention for pre-disaster measures by the
disaster management authorities, the need to increase the involvement
of national and United Nations development institutions is becoming
apparent. This will require much closer cooperation with development
planning authorities, local government and public and private
investors. The Department and UNDP are developing tools to allow
development officials to assess potential disaster risks and integrate
these considerations into their daily work, and UNDP is expected
to fund the UNDP/Department of Humanitarian Affairs project on
disaster impact assessment for development projects.
Humanitarian organizations are on the front lines today both in
meeting the immediate needs of disaster victims and in confronting
the challenges inherent in the dramatically changed environment
of humanitarian assistance. There is greater awareness of the
dynamics which generate marginalization and disintegration and
of the limited, albeit significant, role of humanitarian assistance
in the alleviation of suffering and in helping people to survive.
Humanitarian organizations are also in the forefront of devising
innovative strategies both to strengthen core capacities that
form the backbone of relief operations and to identify new means
of responding to the unprecedented needs. However, in the absence
of effective measures to address the root causes of conflict,
humanitarian assistance will be reduced to merely a tool to contain
crises and the most visible aspects of their destructiveness.
The ability of humanitarian organizations to respond to disasters
that destroy lives and means of livelihood is seriously compromised
by an alarming disrespect for fundamental humanitarian norms.
One of the great challenges in responding to crises is to find
ways to ensure compliance with international humanitarian law.
The well-being and integrity of victims of armed conflict, and
their right to humanitarian assistance, must be recognized and
respected. The international community has both a moral and a
legal obligation to hold accountable those who violate fundamental
humanitarian norms. It is recommended that, in accordance with
the four Geneva Conventions of 1949, Member States should use
their influence with parties to an armed conflict to strengthen
compliance with international humanitarian organizations such
as ICRC. For its part, the United Nations, and in particular
those charged with preventive diplomacy and peacemaking tasks,
will endeavor to make compliance with humanitarian law a central
focus of its activities.
Commensurate with the protection and provision of assistance to
civilians is the security that must be afforded to humanitarian
practitioners who carry out these activities. Member States should
take greater cognizance of the myriad dangers and threats to personal
safety faced by humanitarian workers and support the enhancement
of existing security arrangement, as recognized in the Convention
on the Safety of United Nations and Associated Personnel. Specifically,
it is recommended that the United Nations should have the capacity
to make adequate security arrangements from the onset of any crisis
that has the potential to endanger humanitarian workers. This
may require rapid deployment of one or more officers provided
by the United Nations Security Coordinator's office at the beginning
of a crisis either to supplement existing security arrangements
or to establish a presence where none previously existed. To
deploy this capacity quickly, it is further recommended that interest
accrued on the Central Emergency Revolving Fund should be utilized
to support the deployment to initiate security arrangements and
that donors should respond positively to requests for funding
of security arrangements that are included in consolidated appeals
in order to reimburse the Fund.
Within the humanitarian community, much has been accomplished
in defining common objectives and strategies geared to achieving
greater complementarity of inputs and more effective use of limited
resources. However, greater synergy's could be achieved if the
advice and direction given by Member States to the governing bodies
of individual agencies and programmes was geared to a more unified
approach within the United Nations system. Thus, it is recommended
that Member States take account of the larger context within which
humanitarian assistance is provided in order to ensure greater
coherence in the direction given to the governing bodies of United
Nations specialized agencies and programmes. It is further recommended
that Member States give adequate support to all United Nations
organizations and give due consideration to the importance of
funding consolidated rather than individual appeals to ensure
more coherent implementation of humanitarian programmes.
The consolidated appeals process has proved its worth in both
generating coherent programmes and in mobilizing resources in
a manner that facilitates a balanced response to needs. However,
it is fully understood that, in some instances, needs are poorly
prioritized within specific crises and there is room for additional
streamlining in both the organization and the presentation of
appeals. The Department of Humanitarian Affairs, and its collaborating
partners, are fully committed to strengthening the appeals process.
However, the effectiveness of the consolidated appeals process
is largely dependent upon the response of Member States. There
is, for example, a continuing discrepancy in resources made available
for food and for non-food requirements, and rehabilitation programmes
are often poorly funded compared to other activities. The availability
of additional unearmarked contributions for a particular crisis
would help ensure that all vital needs are met and would strengthen
the capacity of organizations to work together in developing a
consolidated programme. It is recommended that Member States
give due consideration to the possibility of furnishing such support
when responding to future appeals.
One of the most glaring deficiencies in the overall response of
the international community is the general lack of support for
strengthening indigenous capacities and local mechanisms to cope
throughout a crisis. Yet the strength of these local mechanisms
is a major determinant in the struggle of affected communities
to recover. It is recommended that United Nations humanitarian
organizations, as well as international NGOs, consider the greater
use of local NGOs and other indigenous expertise in the planning
and execution of relief and rehabilitation activities.
Despite recognition of the importance of rehabilitation and confidence-building
measures, there is a dramatic dearth of funding for such activities.
Even when donor support for rehabilitation programmes exists,
the funding mechanisms are often too slow to maintain the necessary
momentum to break the cycle of violence or address the conditions
that perpetuate stability. It is important that funds which can
be accessed quickly are set aside for immediate rehabilitation
activities. In this connection, it is recommended that a separate
window with an additional $30 million be opened within the Central
Emergency Revolving Fund to act as a catalyst for such activities.
The Central Emergency Revolving Fund has proved its value in facilitating
a both rapid and joint response by United Nations organizations
to fast-breaking emergencies. However, the revolving nature of
the Fund demands that resources are replenished quickly to ensure
its full utility. Except on three occasions, the United Nations
organizations have been able to repay funds extended to them.
In order to maintain the Fund at the minimum level of $50 million
as stipulated by the General Assembly in its resolution 48/186,
it is recommended that Member States respond favorably to the
proposal to replenish the Fund to cover advances that have been
outstanding for more than a year in the amount of $6.12 million.
It is also recommended that the scope of the Fund be expanded
to facilitate the provision of emergency assistance in the case
of protracted emergencies. The Fund would only be drawn upon
in such circumstances in a judicious manner.
Recent experience has demonstrated the necessity and value of coordination of international humanitarian efforts in managing crisis response. Ensuring adequate interaction, exchange of information and coherence in policy and approach between all actors at various levels in fast-moving, complex crisis situations demands a structure that is adequately resourced and able to function in a timely and effective manner. While much has been accomplished, as evidenced by the rapid system-wide response to recent crises, coordination of the United Nations humanitarian system remains an ongoing challenge. The limited regular budget funding available to the Department of Humanitarian Affairs due to overall resource constraints of the Organization, poses limitations in its capacity in the face of accelerated incidence of humanitarian emergencies. It is a matter of some importance that Member States consider ways to provide the necessary extrabudgetary support to the Department on a sustainable basis. This will help ensure both continuity and strengthening of the Department's key coordination role within the international humanitarian system. In this context, the proposal for donors to earmark a percentage of their contributions to consolidated appeals for the Department's coordination activities merits serious consideration.