This chapter provides an overview of disaster management definitions
and principles useful to military and civil defence planners in
conducting humanitarian and disaster relief operations.
1.1.1 MCDA - A national treasure. Within the resources
of most nations, MCDA represents unique technological and logistical
capabilities that can be mobilized on short notice in a self-contained,
self sufficient and highly mobile fashion, to support lifesaving
relief efforts on behalf of Affected States. Nearly all nations
have at one time or another used their military assets and capabilities
for national disaster relief. A number of nations have also done
so in international relief operations lead by the UN, regional
organizations, or bilaterally. UN Member States have recognized
that natural or manmade disasters can pose as lethal a threat
as that of war, to the stability of any society. Unfortunately,
there are no diplomatic initiatives great enough to thwart earthquakes
or negotiate an accidental nuclear power plant radiation release.
Disasters do not recognize national borders and require international
cooperation to prepare for and respond to their associated challenges
and horrors.
1.1.2 All nations are vulnerable. Any nation can
fall victim to catastrophic disaster and may be in need of international
assistance and the resources found within the international MCDA
community. The organized methodology by which MCDA can be deployed
is its greatest asset in attending to the challenges and uncertainties
associated with disaster response.
1.1.3 Self reliance. Access to MCDA resources
can protect and/or restore critical lifelines and services lost
during sudden onset disasters. Governments who earmark national
MCDA solely for defence, yet are willing to receive international
humanitarian and disaster relief assistance, violate the principle
of self reliance. International disaster relief assistance should
be offered to nations whose resources-whether private or public-have
been mobilized to respond to an emergency. International MCDA,
along with other international relief providers, can leverage
the Affected State's internal response capabilities by offering
specifically targeted resources and services. The Affected State
will most likely reciprocate by providing disaster relief support
back to the international community once it has recovered sufficiently.
It behooves all nations to prepare themselves to respond to disasters
using their own resources first, before requesting IDRA. This
is the essence of self reliance.
1.1.4 UN-DHA Objective. The objective of the UN
DHA Project 213/3 on "The Use of Military and Civil Defence
Assets in Disaster Relief," is to create an environment where
MCDA resources can be effectively, efficiently and responsibly
coordinated to relieve the shortfalls of an Affected State in
crisis following a sudden onset disaster. This manual describes
how this can be done.
Disasters may take many forms, and occur as a result of one or more wide range of events, both natural and man induced. The duration of these events may range from a few seconds to many years. The severity of the effects of a disaster may vary according to the degree to which man has created an environment susceptible to damage, that is, an environment in which life and property are at risk.
1.2.2 Hazards. A hazard is a rare or extreme event in the natural or human-made environments that adversely affects human life, property or activity to the extent of causing a disaster.
The list of hazard types are very long. Many occur infrequently or impact a very small population. Other hazards, such as severe snowstorms, often occur in areas that are accustomed to dealing with them and seldom become disasters. However, from the perspective of a disaster victim it is not particularly useful to distinguish between minor and major disasters. Where natural hazards become disasters, they become potential focal points for International Disaster Relief Assistance (IDRA). A detailed listing of hazards can be found in Annex A. Examples include:
1.2.3 Natural Phenomena. Natural phenomena are extreme climatological, hydrological, or geological processes that do not pose any threat to persons or property. A massive earthquake in an unpopulated area, for example, is a natural phenomena, not a hazard. So is the annual flood along the Nile, an essential element to the well being of its neighboring inhabitants.
1.2.4 Emergency. Another term closely related to disaster is emergency. An emergency might be regarded as a particular type (or sub-set) of a disaster. "Emergency" suggests an intense time period and level of urgency. An emergency is bound by a specific period in which lives and essential property are immediately at risk. A disaster can encompass a more general period in which there is a clear and marked deterioration in the coping abilities of a group or community. Unusual initiatives by groups, communities and external intervention are also evident during this period.
Disasters and emergencies are fundamental reflections of normal life. They are consequences of the way societies structure themselves, economically and socially; the way societies and states interact; and the way relationships between decision-makers are sustained. It is essential to make a distinction between hazards and disasters (to include emergencies), and to recognize that the effect of the former upon the latter is essentially a measure of society's vulnerability.
1.2.5 Vulnerability. The term vulnerability stems from the fact that certain communities or groups have settled in areas susceptible to losses resulting from the impact of a particular phenomenon, hazards or disasters.
The following diagram (See Figure 1-1) illustrates this combination of opposing forces. Vulnerability is seen as the progression of three stages:
1. Underlying causes: a deep-rooted set of factors within a society that together form and maintain vulnerability.
2. Dynamic pressures: a translating process that channels the effects of a negative cause into unsafe conditions; this process may be due to a lack of basic services or provisions or may result from a series of macro-forces.
3. Unsafe conditions: the vulnerable context where people and
property are exposed to the risk of disaster; the fragile physical
environment is one element; other factors include an unstable
economy and low income levels.
1.2.6 Population displacements. This term is associated
with crisis-induced mass migration in which large numbers of people
are forced to leave their homes to seek alternative means of survival.
Such mass movements normally result from the effects of conflict,
severe food shortages or collapse of economic support systems.
1.2.7 Human-made emergencies. Disasters
or emergency situations where the principal, direct cause(s) are
identifiable human actions, deliberate or otherwise. Apart from
"technological" and "ecological" disasters,
this mainly involves situations in which civilian populations
suffer causalities, losses of property, basic services and means
of livelihood as a result of war or civil strife. Human-made
disasters/emergencies can be of the rapid or slow onset types,
and in the case of internal conflict, can lead to "complex
emergencies" as well.
1.2.8 Complex emergencies. These emergencies are a form
of human-made emergencies in which the cause of the emergency
as well as the assistance to the afflicted are bound by intense
levels of political considerations. This sort of emergency is
normally associated with problems of displaced people during times
of civil conflict or populations trapped within their own communities,
isolated from a government or private support structures as well
as access to international relief. People fleeing with the intent
of not returning to their native countries are considered refugees
and may be affected by complex emergencies.
1.3.1. Poverty. The single most important factor that increases the vulnerability of a people to disaster is poverty. An impoverished people who lack education, usually lack the economic and political clout to cope with the hazards of their surroundings.
1.3.2. Ungoverned population growth. Ungoverned population growth can lead to settlements in hazardous areas susceptibility to disease, competition for scare resources, and civil strife. Disaster losses are significantly reduced when the people of any given society are organized with effective laws and controls to protect the population from potentially hazardous areas, access to public utilities, medical care, education, and economic resources. Vulnerability to disaster increases when a nation's capacity to govern does not consider the impact and trends in population growth in potentially hazardous areas. Even in the most benign climates rapid urbanization can create slowly evolving timebombs which could lead to disaster vulnerability.
1.3.3 Rapid urbanization and migration. Rapid population growth and migration are related to the major phenomenon of rapid urbanization. It is characterized by the rural poor or civilians in an area of conflict moving to metropolitan areas in search of economic opportunities and security. These massive numbers of urban poor increasingly find fewer options for availability of safe and desirable places to build their houses. Here again, competition for scarce resources, an inevitable consequence of rapid urbanization, can lead to man-made disasters. Many landslides or flooding disasters are closely linked to rapid and unchecked urbanization forcing low-income families to settle on the slopes of steep hillsides or ravines, or along the banks of flood-prone rivers. Many earthquake victims in urban areas have been impoverished families where the physical location vice the structure of their houses were hazardous, as evidenced by landslides onto the house or out from under it.
1.3.4. Transitions in cultural practices. Many of the inevitable changes that occur in all societies lead to an increase in societies' vulnerability to disasters. Obviously, all societies are in a continual state of transition and change. These transitions are often extremely disruptive and uneven, leaving gaps in social coping mechanisms and technology. These transitions include nomadic populations that become sedentary, rural people who move to urban areas, and both rural and urban people who move from one economic level to another. More broadly, these examples are typical of a shift from non-industrialized to industrializing societies.
One example of the impact of these transitions is the introduction of new construction materials and building designs in a society that is accustomed to traditional designs and materials. This often results in new materials being used incorrectly. In disaster prone areas, inadequate use of new construction techniques contribute to houses unable to withstand earthquakes or wind storms.
Compounding the problem is the formation of post disaster communities of survivors who find themselves without social support systems or networks to assist in relief and recovery. Traditional coping mechanisms may not exist in new settlements and the population becomes increasingly dependent on outside intervention for assistance.
Conflicting cultural practices can also lead to civil conflict, and strife. Examples include events leading to violence triggered by religious intolerance.
1.3.5. Environmental degradation. Many disasters are either caused or exacerbated by environmental degradation. Deforestation leads to rapid rain runoff, which contributes to flooding. The destruction of mangrove swamps decreases the coastlines ability to resist tropical winds and storm surges. The creation of drought conditions - and the relative severity and length of time the drought lasts - is mainly a natural phenomena. Man-made contributions to drought conditions include: poor cropping patterns, overgrazing, the stripping of topsoil, poor conservation techniques, depletion of both the surface and subsurface water supply, and, to an extent, unchecked urbanization.
1.3.6. Lack of awareness and information. Disasters can also occur when people who are vulnerable, have not been educated on how to get out of harm's way or take protective measures at the inset of a disaster event. This ignorance may not necessarily be a function of poverty, but a lack of awareness of what measures can be taken to build safe structures on safe building sites. People may be unaware of safe evacuation routes and procedures. Others may be unaware on where to turn for assistance in times of acute distress. Nevertheless, this point should not be taken as a justification for ignoring the coping mechanisms of the majority of people affected by disasters. In most disaster-prone societies, there is a wealth of understanding about disaster threats and responses. This understanding should be incorporated into external assistance initiatives and planning.
1.3.7. War and civil strife. War and civil strife are
regarded as hazards or extreme events that produce disasters.
War and civil strife often cause the displacement of the population.
The causal factors of war and civil strife include competition
for scarce resources, religious or ethnic intolerance, and ideological
differences. Many of these are also byproducts of the preceding
six causal factors of disasters.
Such compound hazards and disasters need not occur sequentially; they can occur simultaneously. Thus, people may become caught between contending forces in a civil war and also suffer from a major drought with limited means to grow food or to receive outside assistance.
In a growing number of countries, complex disasters are also becoming more evident. Essentially a complex disaster is a form of human-made emergency in which the cause of the emergency as well as the assistance to victims are bound by intense levels of political considerations. The single most prevalent political condition of a complex emergency is civil conflict, resulting in a collapse of political authority. In such cases, at least one of three situations arise:
In fact, many affected people live in areas outside of government control. These are often the people in the most need and yet, the most difficult to reach.
The disaster becomes "complex" because either the collapse
or diffusion of political control makes assistance highly problematic.
Solutions ultimately depend upon agreements with all parties
involved in the conflict to permit assistance to be provided to
recognized civilian noncombatants. These solutions may include
agreements that are seen essentially as compromising fundamental
aspects of sovereignty in exchange for humanitarian assistance.
UN sponsored safe havens on corridors of tranquillity are examples.
One of the most serious consequences of compound and complex emergencies is the creation of populations of displaced persons. The term "displaced person" applies in several contexts. These include people who are:
1.5.1. Consequences and effects. The variety of possible
situations generating displaced people makes generalizations difficult,
but the following maybe experienced in varying degrees:
Not to be forgotten is the population that remains at home and,
even though they are not "trapped in combat areas,"
they maybe in places that are hard to reach because of political,
logistical and/or security reasons. This population group may
end up suffering from many of the some problems as those who are
displaced due to isolation from a national support structure or
access to international humanitarian relief assistance.